Unit 1: Learning Psychology BICTE Third Semester

Unit 1: Learning Psychology

📑 Table of Contents

The word "psychology" has its roots in Greek, where "psyche" means "soul" and "logos" means "study". Thus, the literal meaning of psychology is the "study of the soul." In modern times, psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and personality.

Although the exact date is not known, the development of psychology is believed to have coincided with human civilization. However, it originated as an independent branch in the late 19th century with the founding of the first psychology laboratory by Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, Germany. Since then it  evolved into a diverse and dynamic field with many practical applications. Earlier it was a part of  philosophy (metaphysics), physics, and physiology.

 

1.1. Meaning, Definition and Characteristics of Learning

a. Meaning and Definition of Learning

Learning is a continuous and natural process that occurs throughout our lives, from the time we are in the womb until we die. It is a process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors through experiences and interactions with our environment. Without learning, life would be meaningless and colorless.

Learning affects our thoughts, language, motivations, emotions, personalities, and attitudes, and helps us adapt to the changing conditions of the world around us. It shapes and controls our actions, and influences our decision-making processes.

Learning is not just a change in our behavior or actions; it also refers to a change in our internal state of knowledge. It can be intentional or unintentional, and can occur through various means, such as observation, trial and error, or instruction.

Everything a learner does or thinks is learning. However, the changes in behaviour resulting due to the effects of maturation, instinct, reflex, fatigue, habituation, drugs, illness or injury are not considered as learning. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour of the learner it even brings changes in the personality traits of the learner.

Different psychologists and educationists have their own unique definition of learning. Some view it as a process, while others view it as a change in performance or the acquisition and retention of knowledge. Some of these unique definitions are presented below:

“The basis of learning is to gain knowledge after observing the whole structure. Responding towards the full situation is learning.”

                   - Gestalt’s view

“The learning as the direct cognitive organization of a situation. Motivation has a significant role and place in learning.”

                    - Kurt Lewin

“Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses.”                       

                      -  Woodworth

“Learning is the process by which the individuals acquires various habits, knowledge, and attitudes that are necessary to meet the demands of life, in general”

                - G.D. Boaz (1984)

“Leaning is shown by a change in behaviour as a result of experience.”

                       - Cronbach

“Learning is process in which neutral stimulus by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all characteristics of neutral stimulus.”         

                                 - Pavlov

 “Learning is a process by which behaviour is originated or change through practice or training.”

                - Kingsley and Garry

“Learning is a strengthening of a stimulus response association by following response with a reinforced stimulus.”

-         B. F. Skinner

“Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation.” – Skinner

“Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behaviour due to experience.”    - Myers 1999

 “Learning is any permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience.”

-          Morgan, King, Weiz,  and Schopler,1993, ,

“Learning is an enduring changes in behaviour or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion which results from practice or other forms of experience.”

-         Shuell, 1986

In summary, learning is a crucial concept in psychology, and it affects all aspects of our lives. It is a lifelong process that enables us to acquire new knowledge and skills, and adapt to the changing conditions of our environment. It is the process of engaging and manipulating objects, experiences and conversations in order to build mental models of the world. Learning is a process not the product and continues from birth to death.

 

B. Characteristics of learning

Characteristics of learning refer to the unique features or attributes that are common to all forms of learning. These include:

·       Learning is a lifelong process: Learning is not limited to a specific period of time, it is a continuous process that continues throughout one's life. We learn new things every day and the knowledge we acquire helps us to adapt to the changes in our environment.

 

·       Learning is universal: Learning is not limited to a specific group of people or a particular culture. It is a universal process that applies to everyone, regardless of their age, gender, race, or ethnicity.

 

·       Learning is an essential process: Learning is an essential process that is required for personal and professional development. It helps us to acquire new skills, knowledge, and attitudes that enable us to perform better in our lives.

 

·       Learning is continuous: Learning is a continuous process that happens throughout our lives. It is not limited to a specific time or place, and we can learn anytime and anywhere.

 

·       Learning is development: Learning helps us to develop our cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains. It enables us to enhance our abilities and skills, and to grow as individuals.

 

·       Learning is adjustment: Learning involves the process of adjustment and adaptation to new situations and environments. It helps us to adjust to changes and challenges in our lives.

 

·       Learning is a product of environment: Learning is influenced by the environment in which it occurs. The environment provides the context in which learning takes place and shapes our experiences.

 

·       Learning is organization of experiences: Learning involves the organization of our experiences into meaningful patterns. It helps us to make sense of the world around us and to apply what we have learned to new situations.

 

·       Learning is discovery: Learning involves the process of discovery and exploration. It enables us to discover new ideas, concepts, and perspectives, and to expand our horizons.

 

·       Learning is based on maturation: Learning is influenced by our maturation process. It involves the acquisition of skills and knowledge that are appropriate to our developmental stage.

 

·       Learning is an active process: Learning is an active process that requires our participation and engagement. We need to be actively involved in the learning process in order to acquire new knowledge and skills.

 

·       Learning is purposive: Learning is driven by a purpose or goal. We engage in learning activities because we want to achieve something or acquire a particular skill or knowledge.

 

·       Learning is a fundamental process of life: Learning is a fundamental process of life that enables us to adapt to our environment and to grow as individuals.

 

·       Learning is process as well as product: Learning is a continuous and dynamic process that takes place through various means. The outcome of this process is the product of learning, which can be measured and assessed, such as a new skill, a change in behavior, or an increase in knowledge.

 

·       Learning is change or modification of behavior through activities, experiences and conditions of learning: Learning involves a change or modification in behavior that occurs as a result of our experiences and activities in different learning environments.

 

·       Learning is the nature or tendency of human beings: Learning is a natural tendency of human beings. We are wired to learn and adapt to new situations and environments.

 

·       Learning is the process of mental development – cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain, i.e. structural learning: Learning involves the development of our cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains. It enables us to think, act, and feel in more complex and sophisticated ways.

 

·       Learning is psychological, social and problem solving process: Learning is a psychological, social, and problem-solving process. It involves the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, and attitudes, as well as the ability to solve problems and work collaboratively with others.

 

·       Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and attitudes: Learning involves the acquisition of various skills, knowledge, and attitudes that contribute to an individual's personal and professional growth.

 

·        Learning is the process of adjustment and conditioning: Learning requires individuals to adjust and condition their behavior and actions to suit their environment.

 

·       Learning is the product of heredity and environment: Learning is the result of both our genes and the world around us. Our genes determine the structure and function of our brain, while our experiences, interactions, and environment influence how our brain develops and learns. Both our genes and environment are important in shaping how we learn and acquire knowledge.

 

·       Learning is both a formal, non-formal, and controlled or open process: Learning can occur through a variety of settings and methods, including formal education, non-formal education, and informal learning.

 

·       Learning is both individual and social: Learning is an individual process, where each person's experiences, abilities, and knowledge differ. However, learning is also social, influenced by social interactions, cultural norms, and institutions. Individuals learn from one another and social structures shape what is learned and how it is learned.

 

1.2 Nature of Learning

Nature of learning means fundamental essence or basic qualities inherent in the process of learning. It explains what learning is, how it occurs, and its broader implications. The nature of learning encompasses not just the observable characteristics but also the underlying principles and dynamics that govern the process. From the meanings, definitions, and characteristics of learning mentioned above, its nature or essence can be described as follows:

a.     Learning is an active process. It occurs only when learners are directly engaged and not in a passive state.

b.    Learning is purposeful. It happens when learners have specific intentions to change their behaviours.

c.     Learning involves progressive change which entails a gradual modification or replacement of old behaviours with new ones.

d.    Learning is lifelong: It begins in infancy and continues throughout one's life, extending beyond any specific age or stage, persisting until death.

e.     Learning is dependent on motivation. Information about how and where to acquire knowledge and skills, and understanding their utility and benefits, influences learning.

f.      Learning cannot be directly observed, but one can gauge it by observing an individual's abilities and performance.

g.     Learning is universal and continuous. It transcends age and location, persisting from birth until death.

h.    A person's behaviour may not change immediately with learning.  Continuous practice and use of what has been learned can bring about a positive change in the learner's behaviour.

i.       In learning, both remembering and forgetting happen. Some things we learn, we forget, while other things we remember over time. Factors like situation, time, context, subject matter, and necessity influence what we remember and forget.

j.       Learning can happen vertically and horizontally. Vertical learning means tackling more difficult and complex things, which positively changes how we work. Horizontal learning means organizing and developing what we've learned into a unified and structured form.

k.    Changes caused by illness, maturity, sickness, fatigue, medication, and substance abuse are not considered part of learning.

l.       Various signals, messages, goals, and objectives contribute to a person's learning ability and pace.

m.  Learning can be formal, non-formal, or informal.

n.    Each individual's personal differences cause variations in the rate and extent of learning. Both desire and ability contribute to learning.

o.    Learning is a permanent change in behaviour.

p.    Learning is a functional association of mental events.

 

1.3 Factors Influencing Learning

Learning is influenced by numerous factors. The elements such as gender, personal traits, genetics, environment, mental and emotional aspects, personality traits etc. hugely impact how individuals absorb knowledge and skills. Some of these factors are discussed below:

a.     Gender factor

Generally there is no any difference in learning because of sexual difference.  However, the gender influences may affect how we learn because society often expects different things from boys and girls. These expectations can affect the subjects we're encouraged to study, the way we're taught, and even how much support we get in school. Our bodies and hormones also play a part in how we learn. Additionally, how we interact with friends and what our culture thinks is okay for boys or girls can also impact how we approach learning.

b.    Physiological factor

Physiological factors are related to the proper functioning of different organs and system of our body. The factors like health and wellness, brain and glandular function, sensory organs, nervous system, maturity, heredity, sleep and rest, balance diet, body need, development stages etc. strongly influence learning. For example, being well-rested and healthy helps us concentrate and remember things better. Similarly, having a balanced diet supports brain function, aiding in improved learning and focus. Hormonal changes, especially during adolescence, can affect mood and attention, thereby influencing the learning process. Besides, physical defect such as blindness, dumbness, deafness etc. not only limit the ability of individual to learn but also delays their maturation process. Overall, our body's physiological state plays a vital role in shaping how effectively we learn and understand new concepts.

c.     Psychological factor

Psychological factors another important factor influencing learning. Internally, factors like motivation, needs, interest, attention, effort, intelligence, memory, and retention greatly influence learning. Externally, reinforcement, reward, punishment, feedback, and practice also impact an individual's learning process. These external factors strengthen desired behaviours, correct responses, and contribute to information processing, ultimately shaping the nature and process of learning.

d.    Environmental factor

The environment plays a crucial role in learning by shaping experiences, providing stimuli, and impacting motivation. Factors like a supportive atmosphere, resources, cultural influences, and access to technology significantly affect how individuals perceive, process, and retain information. A positive environment either in school such as supportive teacher’s behaviour, appropriate teaching method and materials, class conduct, desk and bench, cleanness etc. or outside the boundaries of school such as positive family, community and neighbour atmosphere can enhance learning outcomes by fostering engagement, curiosity, and cognitive development. Conversely, negative environments, distractions, or lack of resources can impede learning progress.

e.     Instructional factor

Instructional factors also play a important role in shaping the learning process. They include the methods, strategies, materials, and environments used to impart knowledge and facilitate understanding. Effective instructional design considers learners' diverse needs, employing varied techniques to engage, motivate, and challenge individuals. Clear explanations, interactive activities, relevant examples, and feedback mechanisms are crucial components influencing comprehension and retention. Moreover, the pacing, sequencing, and organization of information significantly impact learners' ability to grasp concepts.

1.4 Philosophical Foundations of Learning Theories

Learning theories are based on different philosophical foundations that influence how we understand and approach learning. Two of the main philosophical foundations of learning theories are:

1.2.1.          Empiricism and behaviourism

1.2.2.          Rationalism and cognitivism

1.4.1  Empiricism and behaviourism

a. Empiricism

I. Introduction

 The word empiricism comes from the Greek word "empeiria," which means "experience." The term was first used in the 17th century by the British philosopher Francis Bacon to describe a method of acquiring knowledge based on observation and experience. However, it was John Locke who popularized the term in his "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1689), where he argued that all knowledge comes from sensory experience. Therefore, John Locke is considered as a father of modern empiricism.

Empiricism is the belief that all knowledge comes from our senses and experiences. This means that our ideas and concepts are based on what we see, hear, taste, touch, and smell. Empiricists don't believe in any ideas that exist before we have sensory experiences. According to this theory, a child's mind is like a bank sheet of paper (tabula rasa).  As the sense organs collect various experiences, the empty mind becomes filled with knowledge. Empiricists think that all knowledge is gained through learning and perception. Our senses are the "gateway" to knowledge, and when we experience something, we create simple ideas about it in our minds. These simple ideas can then be combined to form more complex ideas. For example, when we taste, see, and touch an apple, we create simple ideas about its taste, color, and texture, and we can then combine these ideas to form the more complex idea that an apple is a fruit. Empiricism involves two learning mechanisms: developing simple ideas through sensory data, and combining those ideas to form complex ideas.

The term empiricism has been used to describe a philosophical approach that emphasizes the role of experience and observation in the acquisition of knowledge. Empiricists believe that knowledge is gained through the senses and that any knowledge not based on empirical evidence is unreliable or uncertain. This approach has been influential in fields such as learning psychology, where empirical methods are used to study behavior and mental processes, and in science, where observation and experimentation are central to the scientific method.

II. Key features of Empiricism

According to Hilgard and Bowe, empiricism possesses following characteristic features:

·       Sensationalism: Knowledge is derived through sensory experience, and sense perception is a major aspect of constructing reality.

·        Reductionism: Complex ideas are built from simple ideas that can be reduced to basic elements.

·       Associationism: Mental elements or ideas are linked together through association by contiguity in experience.

·       Mechanism: The mind operates like a machine, made up of simple elements, and can be understood through the application of mechanistic principles.

 

b.    Behaviourism

I. Introduction

Behaviorism is a philosophy of learning that originated in the early 20th century with the work of American psychologist John B. Watson who believed that environment shapes children's behavior through conditioning. Other notable behaviorists include Ivan P. Pavlov, Edward Lee Thorndike, Burrhus Fredrick Skinner, and E.R. Guthrie.

The major premises of learning theories according to behaviorism are that learning is the relation between stimulus in the environment and the response to these stimuli. According to behaviorism, learning or knowing is the behavior or habit formation that is obtained from the connection between stimulus and response. The behaviorist perspective emphasizes the importance of environmental factors in shaping behavior and stresses the role of conditioning in learning.  The behaviorist approach emphasizes the importance of observable behavior rather than internal mental processes in understanding human learning and behavior.

According to behaviorism, all behavior, including thoughts and emotions, can be explained through the environmental factors that shape it. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors can be described without considering internal physiological events or hypothetical constructs such as the mind.

In summary, behaviorism as the base of learning focuses on the importance of observable behavior, conditioning, and the relationship between stimuli and responses. It has had a significant impact on psychology and education, and continues to influence the way we understand human behavior and learning.

II. Characteristics of behaviouristic learning

Behaviourist learning theory has distinctive features that set it apart from other approaches to learning. Some of these features include:

·       Naturalistic and objective view: Behaviourism sees the natural world as the ultimate reality and explains everything in terms of natural laws. This perspective suggests that humans have no soul or mind, only a brain that responds to external stimuli.

·       Human behaviour is a product of conditioning: Behaviourism teaches that human behaviour is the result of conditioning. According to this theory, we are biological machines that react to stimuli, and our behavior is a product of our conditioning.

·       Lack of responsibility for actions: Behaviourism emphasizes environmental factors that shape behaviour rather than personal responsibility. We are simply machines, reacting to stimuli and operating in our environment to achieve certain goals. Therefore, behaviourism denies personal responsibility in learning. We are not responsible for our actions.

·       Manipulative: Behaviorism seeks not only to understand human behavior but also to predict and control it. This makes it a manipulative approach to learning.

·       Sensory input as the gateway to knowledge: Behaviourism believes that learning occurs through sensory experiences, and that individuals change their behaviour based on associating their behavior with a new experience related to a specific stimulus.

·       Learning through stimulus-response pairing: Learning occurs through pairing the response with a stimulus, which is strengthened by contiguity among them and recurring practice.

·       Practice strengthens learning: Repetition of a behaviour strengthens the association between a stimulus and response.

·       Positive and negative reinforcement: Learners develop associations between stimuli and responses for which they receive positive reinforcement. In the presence of negative reinforcement, they abstain from a specific response for a specific stimulus.

Overall, behaviourism emphasizes the importance of objective observation, conditioning, and environmental factors in understanding human behaviour and learning.

The relationship between behaviourism and Empiricism

The points highlighting the relationship between behaviorism and empiricism are:

Similarities:

·       Both are based on the scientific method of observation and experimentation.

·       They emphasize the importance of sensory experience in shaping behavior.

·       They view the mind as a blank slate that is moulded by experience.

 

Differences:

·       Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior and ignores mental processes, while empiricism emphasizes the role of mental processes in shaping behavior.

·       Behaviourism tends to be more deterministic, while empiricism acknowledges the role of free will and choice.

·       Behaviourism relies on reinforcement and punishment to shape behaviour, while empiricism emphasizes the role of cognitive processes, such as perception, memory, and attention, in shaping behaviour.

·       Behaviourism tends to be more focused on the present, while empiricism emphasizes the role of past experiences in shaping behavior.

·       Behaviourism views behaviour as a response to stimuli, while empiricism emphasizes the active role of the individual in shaping their own behaviour.

·       Behaviourism tends to be more concerned with overt behaviour, while empiricism is concerned with both overt and covert behaviour, including mental processes and subjective experience.

 

1.4.2 Cognitivism and Rationalism

a. Cognitivism

I. Introduction

Cognitivism, also known as cognitive psychology, is a branch of psychology that focuses on how people process, understand, and learn information. It is based on the belief that mental processes, such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving, are key to understanding human behavior and learning. Cognitivism focuses on inner mental activities—opening the "black box" of the human mind.  It assumes that humans are not "programmed animals" who only respond to environmental stimuli;  but as a rational beings they need active participation to learn, and whose actions are the result of thinking.

Cognitive psychologists study how people acquire and use knowledge, how they perceive and interpret information, and how they solve problems. They are interested in understanding the mental processes involved in learning and how these processes affect behaviour. It focuses on exploring the inner mental activities that lead to learning and problem-solving. This approach sees knowledge as schema or symbolic mental constructions, and learning as a change in a learner's schemata.

Cognitivism emerged in response to behaviorism's limitations and emphasizes internal mental processes to understand human behavior.There were several pioneers and proponents of cognitive psychology. Some of the most notable figures include George Miller, Ulric Neisser, Jerome Bruner, Allen Newell, and Herbert Simon.

II. Characteristics of Cognitivism

The main characteristics of Cognitivism is presented pointwise below:

·       Focus on mental processes: Cognitivism focuses on the mental processes involved in learning, such as perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving.

·       Importance of prior knowledge: Cognitivism emphasizes the importance of prior knowledge and experience in learning new information and skills.

·       Active learning: Cognitivism encourages active learning, where learners are actively engaged in the learning process and can apply what they have learned in new contexts.

·       Learner-centered approach: Cognitivism places the learner at the centre of the learning process, with a focus on understanding the individual's cognitive processes and how they acquire and use knowledge.

·       Use of technology: Cognitivism supports the use of technology in learning, including multimedia and interactive instructional materials, simulations, and educational software.

·       Evidence-based approach: Cognitivism emphasizes the use of scientific evidence and research to understand how learning occurs and to develop effective instructional methods.

·       Multiple intelligences: Cognitivism acknowledges the existence of multiple intelligences, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligence.

B. Rationalism

I. Introduction

Rationalism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the use of reason and logical thinking to understand the world around us. Rationalists believe that knowledge can be gained through reason and intuition rather than solely relying on sensory experience. This means that they place a higher value on concepts like deductive reasoning and a priori knowledge (knowledge that can be understood without prior experience).

The theory of rationalism emerged in the 17th century in opposition to the empirical approach. It is believed to be originated in ancient Greece, with Plato as its main proponent. Plato believed in discovering knowledge through reason and logical thought instead of sensory experience. Rationalism was further developed by philosophers such as René Descartes in the 17th century, who emphasized skepticism and doubt in the pursuit of knowledge. He said "I think, therefore I am". He argued that knowledge gained through reason and intuition was more reliable than knowledge gained through sensory experience, which can be misleading. It was further advocated by W. Leibniz, B.S. Spinoza, Simulant, and F. Voltaire. It was Denis Diderot who coined the term "rationalism."

Rationalists also emphasize the importance of innate ideas, or ideas that are present in the mind at birth, as a foundation for knowledge. By experiencing, observing, touching, or hearing, one can learn about the external form or properties of an object. However, the use of wisdom is necessary to identify the true properties. Therefore, we can obtain knowledge of all things on earth through the use of reasoning.

II. Basic concept or learning doctrine of rationalism

The basic concepts or learning doctrines of rationalism are as follows:

·       Reason is the primary source of knowledge and truth.

·       The world is a rational and orderly place, and it is possible to understand it through reason.

·       All humans possess the innate capacity for rational thought and understanding.

·       Empirical evidence is important, but reason should be used to interpret and make sense of it.

·       Deductive reasoning is an important tool for discovering knowledge and understanding the world.

·       Skepticism is necessary to test and validate knowledge claims.

·       Science and mathematics are considered to be the most reliable and objective methods of acquiring knowledge.

The relation between Cognitivism and Rationalism

Here are some points comparing and contrasting rationalism and Cognitivism:

Similarities:

·       Both emphasize the role of reason and rationality in learning and knowledge acquisition.

·       Both reject behaviorism's emphasis on external stimuli and reinforcement as the primary drivers of learning.

·       Both place a strong emphasis on mental processes, such as perception, memory, and thinking.

Differences:

·       Rationalism is primarily concerned with the innate abilities of the mind, while cognitivism is more focused on the processes of learning and the acquisition of knowledge.

·       Rationalism emphasizes deductive reasoning, while Cognitivism focuses on the scientific method and empirical evidence.

·       Rationalism tends to be more abstract and philosophical, while Cognitivism is more practical and experimental.

·       Rationalism places more emphasis on innate knowledge and understanding, while Cognitivism emphasizes the importance of learning from experience and the environment.

·       Rationalism tends to be associated with earlier thinkers such as Descartes and Leibniz, while cognitivism is a more recent development in psychology and education.

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