Unit 1: Human Growth and Development
Level: Bachelor
Faculty: Education
Program: BICTE
Semester: Second
Subject: Developmental Psychology
Course No.: Ed 422
This page provides study notes and reading materials for Unit 1: Human Growth and Development from the subject Developmental Psychology (Course No. Ed 422) offered in the Second Semester of the Bachelor level under the Faculty of Education, BICTE Program. The material is prepared according to the official course syllabus and recommended textbooks. It explains the basic concepts, principles, and stages of human growth and development, including the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional aspects of development across the lifespan. The notes also introduce major theories and theorists related to human development to help students understand how individuals grow and change over time. These notes are designed to support students in reading, revision, and exam preparation in a clear and organized manner.
1.1 Concept of Human Growth and Development
Among the various fields of psychology,
developmental psychology is one which studies human growth and development as
well as its principles or characteristics and its purpose and rationale. Its
main function is to study the physical and mental processes and the changes
that occur in the period from birth to death in a systematic and scientific
manner.
Some psychologists interpret
human development and growth synonymously. However, in terms of meaning, these two concepts are
different. Human growth is the quantitative change that occurs in a
person. In the word of Crow and Crow, “growth refers to structural and
physiological changes.” The changes such as the changes in the physical
structure, size, shape, weight, height and volume of a person are growth. Growth can be clearly observed, measured and
weighed. Growth starts from conception. It
runs only for a certain period of time. It refers to maturity. It is the foundation
of development that is influenced and directed by heredity. Development is not
possible without growth.
On the contrary, development
is a broad and comprehensive concept that includes both quantitative and
qualitative aspects. It implies the change and improvement of all aspects of
physical, mental, emotional, intellectual, social, moral etc. In the opinion of Hurlock, “the term
development means a progressive series of orderly and coherent changes.” Growth, maturation, experience and learning are all
the basis of development and are included under development. It is an ongoing process. It cannot be
measured easily but can be estimated based on behavioral observations. It is influenced and directed by both
heredity and environment.
Growth and development are
integral parts of human life that are interrelated. Development is not possible
without growth. Growth is the basis of development. Growth lays the foundation for development
and development also provides necessary support for growth. Although these two
terms have different meanings, they also have some similarities.
Similarities between growth and
development
The similarities between human
growth and development can be noted as follows:
§ Both indicate change
§ Both are interdependent and interrelated
§ Both are complementary to each other’
§ Both are observable and measurable
§ Both indicate and demonstrate maturity
§ Both start with human life
§ Both show new features
§ Both are determined by heredity and environment etc.
Difference between growth
and development
| Growth | Development |
|---|---|
| Growth is quantitative change. | Development is both quantitative and qualitative change. |
| Growth is only related to physical aspects. | Development covers total aspects such as physical, mental, emotional, and social changes. |
| The changes such as size, shape, weight, height, and volume are examples of growth. | Development is a positive change in human behavior and activities. |
| Growth is associated with physical maturation which occurs automatically. | Development is influenced by learning, experience, and environment. |
1.2 Determinants of Human Growth and Development
Human growth and development are
influenced by a variety of factors.
Such factors are called determinants of human growth and development. Various
psychological studies have shown that human growth and development is mainly
determined by genetics and environment. Some psychologists also divide them into
two types, external and internal. In general, these can be stated as follows:
a.
Heredity: Traits
that are passed from parents to offspring are called heredity. According to
Crow and Crow "heredity is biological qualities which are acquired by
offspring through their parents." These qualities are passed on through
the genes on the chromosomes during conception. They play an important role
in growth and development that take
place later in the life of the child. The height, weight, colour of the eyes
and the skin, the characteristics of the hair, physical structure, nervous
system and other things related to one's constitutional make-up, body chemistry
and physical development are highly decided by heredity factors. Growth and
development are affected by whether genetic elements are good or bad. For
example, if a child has a disorder in his nervous system, his physical and
cognitive growth and development will be affected. Likewise, when there is a
defect in the genetics, the normal physical growth and development of the child
will be affected, as a result, other aspects such as mental, emotional and
social growth and development are also affected. Such children suffer from
inferiority complex and adjustment problems are seen in them.
The influence of heredity
is generally observed in the following aspects of a person’s growth and
development:
§ Physical
appearance
§ Racial
supremacy
§ vocational
traits
§ Social
status
§ Personality
§ Intelligence etc.
b.
Glandular
secretion: Endocrine or ductless glands present in the body play an important
role in human growth and development. Each of these
glands secrets special juices called hormones. The abnormal activity of any one gland affects the activity of other
parts of the body and glands. They influence the
functions of the body system, emotional actions and even thoughts and excise a
great influence on physical, social, mental, emotional and moral aspects of a
person's growth and development. For example:
the abnormal condition of the secretion of pituitary gland affects the height
of children. Due to this, the children,
who are supposed to achieve the height, do not reach the height and end up stunted.
Children who are much shorter than the average height of their age group find
it difficult to participate in various group activities, and children often
feel helpless. In the same way, due to
the abnormal activity of sex glands or gonads, appropriate physical
characteristics do not develop according to gender, such as: boys do not grow
mustache, voice like a girl, lack of masculinity, etc., while the physical
characteristics of boys appear in girls.
c.
Intelligence: Intelligence, as the ability to learn, adjust and
take right decision at right time, has a significant role in the overall growth
and development of a child. It affects his social behavior, moral judgement and
emotional growth. An intelligent person is said to exercise reasonable control
over his emotions, and is found to carry on well with his personal and social
adjustment. Thus, the physical, social, emotional, moral and language development
of a child is greatly influenced and controlled by the level of his
intelligence. We cannot expect problem-solving behavior, creative, imaginative
and inventive ability from a child having subnormal intelligence.
d.
Environment: Environment
plays a role in human growth and development as much as heredity. Environment
refers to all those things, except genes, which stimulate and influence a
person. According Woodworth, “environment
covers all the outside factors that have acted on the individual since he begins
life.” Just as the seed (heredity) is not enough for a plant to be good, the
soil (environment) must also be good, in the same way, for the proper growth
and development of a human being, it is not enough that the genetic quality is
good, the environment in which he lives must also be good. Even if person comes from a good lineage, s/he
cannot progress if s/he does not get a suitable environment. There is nothing
good or bad when a child is born.
Environment makes him good or bad. The environment shapes the innate
qualities or traits that children inherit from their ancestors. If the environmental elements are not good,
no matter how good the child may be with hereditary qualities, there will be no
proper development and growth. In a bad and unfavourable environment, the child cannot develop his
personality properly.
The physical, social,
cultural, intellectual and emotional environment surrounding a person has a lot
of influence on growth and development of a person. The influence of the
environment starts from conception. The environment of the child in the womb,
his upbringing, family love, education, social and economic status of the
family, lifestyle, tradition, friends and other favorable and unfavorable
conditions determine the growth and development of the individual.
e. The
quality of physical environment medical care and nourishment: A child's growth and development is greatly
influenced by the quality of his physical environment and medical care and
nourishment available to him for his living and working. These include open
space, balanced diet, good living and working conditions and proper medical
care. He will achieve the heights of his growth and development based on the
proper availability of these things.
1.3 Need for Studying Human Growth and Development
Along with human
growth and development, various changes take place which bring about
differences in the individual's wants, needs, interests and abilities. Its
study provides information on why and how changes occur at different
developmental stages of human life and how they influence behavior. Therefore,
it is necessary and important for every parent, teacher, administrator, planner, researcher, manager
etc. to have knowledge about human growth and development. On this basis, the
need and importance of the study of human growth and development can be traced out
in the following points:
i.
Classes can be managed
based on the interests, needs and abilities of the children
ii.
A relevant curriculum, text
books and materials can be developed to suit the development characteristics of
children
iii.
Teaching methods and activities
can be determined based on the individual differences that appear
iv.
It is helpful in
providing the necessary guidance and counselling to children
v.
Feedback and motivation
can be provided as needed
vi.
Based on the level,
ability, maturity etc. of the children, they can be divided into groups and the
necessary plans and actions can be developed for the improvement of learning.
vii.
Parents can ensure the necessary atmosphere
and design caring activities according to the child's developmental pattern
viii.
It helps to improve the
quality and effectiveness of teaching and learning.
ix.
Different types of
educational and vocational plans can be created
x.
Special programs and
remedial actions can be designed and executed on the basis of development
characteristics etc.
1.4 Major Methods of Studying Human Growth and Development
The study of human growth and development
is a broad and complex task. In order to
analyse the
various activities that appear at every stage and to present scientifically
recognized bases, only one study method may not be sufficient. The study of
human development was started by J. A. Comenius in the seventeenth
century. Hall and Clark initiated the
study of child development. Hence, Hall
is also called the father of Child Studies movement.
In
the beginning, psychologists used laboratory methods to study human
development, but when studying a sensitive animal in a controlled environment
of a laboratory, his activities could not be spontaneous and natural, so the
facts obtained from such studies lacked credibility. Then other methods such as
introspective method, retrospective method, genetic study, case study,
sequential approach, etc. were introduced. Among the main methods specified in
our curriculum, we will discuss the
following:
a. Longitudinal
method,
b. Cross
sectional method and
c. Case study
a. Longitudinal
method: The method of studying a child or children of the same age group over a
long period of time is called longitudinal method. In this method, the changes, interests and
behavior of each child at different ages are studied sequentially. In this way, the difference in time and
environment is generalized by studying the changes in children's physical,
intellectual, emotional, moral, educational, social, etc. aspects. Usually, a
few sample children are selected from a large population of children from
infancy to adolescence, and the various aspects of development that appear at
different developmental stages of the sampled children are continuously studied
over the years. During the study,
information about their physical, mental, intellectual, social, emotional,
functional and linguistic development is obtained and the changes in them are
assessed along with the increase in age. Based on this, other children's
activities and behavior are interpreted.
The longitudinal method
was started by psychologists Allan A Stone and Willard Coslan. Then, Jean Piaget discovered the cognitive
development process using this method. Many psychologists have used this method
during developmental behavior studies.
The famous evolutionary psychologist Hurlock divided the longitudinal
method into two parts:
I.
Trait oriented technique:
In this, one or two developmental aspects of child development are studied over
a short period of time. Piaget studied his daughter Jacqueline's hand-eye
coordination for only 4 months.
II.
Life outcome-oriented
technique: It involves studying various
developmental aspects of a sample of children over a long period of time and
generalizing the results. It is also called extended case study. Using this
technique, psychologist Barkley studied the growth and development of 61
infants over 40 years from 1928 to 1968, while psychologist Buffon studied the
height of one child for 17 years.
Advantages /
merits
The advantages of
longitudinal method include:
§ The findings are valid and reliable
§ A child's gradual growth, development status and
cumulative records can be obtained
§ The influence of culture and environment on
development can be studied
§ Based on the facts obtained from the study of one
child, the behavior of many can be explained and predicted
§ Quantitative and qualitative information can be
obtained
§ All aspects of growth and development can be studied
§ It is possible to know which behavior is permanent or
changing
§ An opportunity for procedural analysis of the
relationship between maturity and experience is gained etc.
Disadvantages / demerits
This method has following
weaknesses:
§ It is expensive in terms of time, resources and means
§ Selecting an appropriate sample is difficult and the
sample children may not be representative
§ Sampled children's personal health, non-cooperation,
migration of parents etc. may cause problems
§ There may be
personal influence of the researcher in the data collection
§ A child's actions and behaviors in one environment do
not necessarily match those of children in other environments
§ The actual behavior and nature may not be known while
being under the observation of the researcher
§ A researcher needs patience for a long time
§ If something happens to the student or the child in
the middle of the study, time and money will be wasted.
b.
Cross-sectional method: The
second important method used for the study of human development is the cross-sectional
method. It is a method developed after a long discussion, study and
deliberation in order to overcome the weaknesses of the longitudinal method. Initially,
this method was used by Templin, a professor of psychology at Howard
University. He successfully used this
method in 1957 to study the linguistic development of children between the ages
of 3 to 8 years. Similarly,
psychologists Coats and Hartup used this method to study children's learning
methods.
In this
method, children of different ages are grouped together to study human
development. While forming a group for study, children of different age groups
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, years) from different social, economic, geographical
environment and different genders are selected on the basis of random sampling and
children's behavior is studied and explained.
Hence this method is called representative method. This method is
considered a scientific method because it identifies, selects, explains,
analyzes and generalizes and differentiates problems based on certain rules, principles
and procedures. In this method, certain facts of human
development are collected from the study of children of different age groups at
the same time without studying the same child at different developmental
stages. By analyzing and evaluating the
obtained statistics, conclusions are obtained about the average behavior rather
than a particular behavior.
Advantages / merits
The major advantages of
this method are:
§ Saves time, resources and labor
§ Study can be conducted from one person (researcher)
§ It is based on the scientific method
§ Children of different age groups can be studied at the
same time
§ It is more practical in terms of operation and study
§ Easy to generalize the results and interpret average
behavior
Limitation / disadvantages/ demerits
The advantages of this
method are:
§ It is not possible to study the continuous and gradual
growth of the child
§ This method ignores differences between different age
groups
§ It ignores the impact of cultural and environmental
changes on development
§ Because the developmental conditions in selected
children do not develop from the same environment, the behaviors studied may
not be reliable and valid
§ It is difficult to determine the effect of individual
child differences in the study etc.
Differences between longitudinal and cross-sectional method
|
Longitudinal
Method |
Cross-sectional
Method |
|
The
same group is studied continuously for a long time |
Many
groups of different conditions and age levels are studied only once |
|
It covers relatively a small sample |
It covers relatively a large sample |
|
It
is considered more expensive in terms of time, means and resources. |
It
takes less time and is therefore considered practical and less expensive |
|
Many
experts or researchers are required |
Studies
can also be conducted with fewer researchers |
|
It
is difficult to find person to study for long periods of time which may lead
to problems in sample selection |
Selecting
a sample is easy as the study is completed in a short period of time. |
|
More
time is needed to draw conclusions and generalize the study |
Conclusions
can be drawn and generalized immediately. |
|
It
involves nuanced (सुक्ष्म) study of child
with his individual differences |
In
this method only behaviour is studied according to time and situation. |
c.
Case study method: Case study is the third and most important method of
studying human growth and development. It is also called intensive study method
or in-depth study method etc. It was initially used by doctors during medical
studies, but today psychologists have started using it to study and solve
children's personality problems. Case
study method is used for the study of human development and to provide good
guidance and counseling services to children.
The definition given by different scholars about case
study is as follows:
According to Staffer and Lazarus “A case study of
an individual is essentially a story about his life presented in the most
complete and objective manner possible.”
According to P.V. Young, “Case study is a method
of exploring and analysing the life of a social unit, be that unit a person, a
family, an institution, a cultural group or even entire community.’
J.L. Baker defines "A case study is
research strategy, which focuses on a single organisation, institution, event,
decision, policy or group or possibly a multiple set.”
In the word of Wolf and Pant, "A case
study is a research method which investigate the conditions or status of a
person or group and is designed to increase understanding as it exists in real
life setting."
According to R.L. Gay, "A case study is in-depth investigation
of an individual, group or institution in education, case studies are typically
conducted to determine the background, environment and characteristics of
children with problems."
A case study is an extended
form of cumulative record. In this method, a detailed information related to a
person's problem, acquired ability, interest, attitude, personality, education,
health as well as the person's family status, social relations, family history,
friends, is collected. It is very useful
in the study of gifted people, children with mental retardation, maladjusted
children, criminals and children who appear as social problems. Case studies
often focus more on the study of abnormal than normal children. Behaviors of problematic children at school such
as running away from school, cheating, stealing, not doing homework, etc. can
be studied and proper guidance and counseling can be provided.
Historically, psychologist
Sigmund Freud introduced this method to child studies. He used this method to
study the behavior of abnormal and disorganized children. American psychologist
Terman used this method for 20 years to distinguish the personality
characteristics of gifted children. Herbert Spencer used ethnographic studies
to advance this type of research. Similarly, other psychologists such as
Witmer, Woole, Conne and Elikish etc. also used this method.
Steps of case study
The following steps should be
taken to effectively use the case study method:
§ Selection
of the case
§ Determining
present status of children
§ Formulation
of hypothesis
§ Collection
of data
§ Verification
of hypothesis
§ Suggestions for problem
solving
§ Follow
up study of the case
Advantages /
merits of case study
The advantages of
using this method in the study
of human growth and development are as follows:
§ The
cause of unusual and problematic behavior can be discovered
§ A
person's past and present situation can be studied in detail
§ Human
behavior can be predicted on the basis of obtained facts and experience
§ The
basis for providing proper guidance and counselling to the individual or
student is obtained
§ A
path to further research is opened
§ An
understanding of the interrelationships between various aspects influencing
human development can be developed
§ It
helps children's problem solving and personality building.
Disadvantages / demerits
The major
disadvantages of using case study method are:
§ Personal biases of the researcher may remain. There is
influence of subjectivity.
§ The researcher may not get adequate and complete
information about the person's past and present condition
§ It takes more time, means and resources
§ Information may be inaccurate and not verifiable
§ Findings cannot be generalized
§ As it needs to study for a long time, there is a
possibility of adding another problem while studying
§ It is more remedial
than research oriented
§ The same event or behavior may be perceived and
interpreted differently by different researchers
§ A qualified, experienced and trained researcher is
required for the study etc.
Implications of case
study
Case study
can be used in the following tasks:
§ To study the people who are unable to adjust in the
society and give necessary guidance and advice
§ To identify the problems of troublesome and abnormal
children in class and provide remedial services
§ To understand the physical and mental development of
children
§ To make an in-depth study of some aspect of a person
or organization
§ To diagnose a patient's disease and provide
therapeutic services in the field of education etc.
1.5
Major Issues in Human Development
There is no
consensus among scholars on some subjects that psychology studies. Many
questions in this field are still unanswered even today. This is still a
subject of research and investigation.
There are many controversies about the type of development that occurs
in different aspects in different stages of human growth and development and
what it is influenced by. Some of these
issues include: What influences human development? Is development based on genetic traits or is
it based on environment? Is development
static or dynamic? Does development
happen continuously or only for a certain period of time? These and such questions are still debated
today. Among such controversial issues
or developmental issues, the main ones prescribed by our curriculum are as
follows:
a. Nature
versus nurture
b. Stability
versus change
c. Continuity
versus discontinuity
a. Nature
versus nurture
In developmental psychology, nature means
heredity and nurture means environment. Even today, not everyone has the same
opinion about the fact that the development of a person is influenced more by nature
or by the nurture. Hereditary or genetic factor (nature) is the biological
quality that is transmitted from parents to children by birth, while all other
aspects except Gene are called environment (nurture). Whether nature or the environment has more
influence on human development is still a controversial issue. This is called the issue of Nature vs
Nurture.
In this debate between various theorists,
philosophers and academics, each one emphasizes their own side, but there is
still a dispute about which one has more influence. John Locke emphasizing on
the role of environment argues that at birth a child is born with empty mind (a blank slate or tabula
rasa) that can be filled up through experience and training. While Philosophers like Rousseau, Darwin, Lamarck, Mendel,
Galton, Gesell etc. have emphasized on the genetic aspect. Behavioral psychologists Watson, Pavlov,
Skinner etc. have also given importance to the environmental aspect in human
growth and development. But psychologist Wood Worth has overemphasized the role
of heredity in human development.
According to him, 80% genetics and 20% environmental factors play a role
in human development.
Both heredity (nature) and environment
(nurture) play a role in human development.
Human development is the result of the interaction of these two
aspects. Although the role of heredity
appears to be indirect and the role of environment direct, the development of
inherited traits or characteristics requires a suitable environment. During human development, conception is based
on heredity while development is based on environment. Therefore, both of them have an equally important
role in growth and development.
b. Stability
versus change
Among the issues
that have appeared in various aspects of human development, stability or change
has also remained as a controversy. This
means that there is no consensus among the psychologists whether human
behaviors are stable or changeable. Some
psychologists emphasize that human behaviours are stable or permanent in
nature, while others argue that behaviours are variable among humans.
Human development
begins with conception. In the state of
pregnancy, the creature that is in the form of a small embryo
gradually grows and changes and is born as a whole human being after nine months. Similarly, a small, ignorant child at birth
changes in various forms through the new-born, infancy, childhood, adulthood and old age. In this
process, physical, mental, emotional, social and moral development and changes
take place in him. From this fact, it is said that development is not static
but variable. It is clear that there is a property of Change. Psychologists
like Thomas, Chess, Michael Rutter suggest that development involves change.
On the other hand,
human development is not only physical development but also mental, social,
emotional and intellectual development.
In some people, the activities that appeared in childhood such as fear, anger,
jealousy, sense of humour, shyness, etc. are
seen even in adulthood and old age.
Also, some parts or organs in humans remain the same from birth to
death. The persistence of such habits
from childhood can be considered a stability effect. If development is variable, why did such
stable behaviours appear? This question
is still unanswered, litigated (as issue) and controversial. Psychologists such
as Sroufe, Egeland, Kreutzer, Gaspi, Silva, Freud, Erik Erickson, etc. are
found to emphasize the argument that the quality of stability remains in human
behavior.
In
fact, it is very difficult to determine which early human behaviors are
permanent and which behaviors can be changed. However, some behaviors that
appear during human development appear in the same form from childhood to old
age, while some behaviors change with age. In conclusion what we can say is
that apart from some qualities, characteristics and behaviors of human beings’
other qualities and behaviors can be changed as per our wish.
c. Continuity
versus discontinuity
Another important issue and
debate in the field of human development is continuity or discontinuity in
development. From conception to death, a
person undergoes gradual changes in physical, mental, social, emotional, etc. aspects. It
is natural. If these various aspects do
not change, human development cannot be imagined. Changes in height, weight, body type, intellectual ability,
social, emotional, etc. are inevitable.
But the important question is how long will it develop? There is discontinuity in the development of
some parts or organs. For example, human
height only increases after birth until adolescence, after which it stops. Similarly, nose, mouth, eyes and many other
body parts grow and develop only for a certain period of time and then
stop. But the development of
intellectual, social, emotional, moral etc. aspects does not stop. They continue till death. As a result, there is no exact answer to
whether there is continuity or discontinuity in human development. Therefore, continuity and discontinuity are
also considered as issues in human development.
The development of physical, mental, emotional, intellectual, social, moral, etc. in the course of human development appears in different ways at different ages. At some age, the development of the physical aspect is more, while at some age, the development of the mental aspect is accelerated. In some cases, the development of the emotional aspect is rapid, while some age is considered important from the point of view of social and moral development. There is a limit to various aspects of development and after reaching a certain limit, the process of development is blocked. Therefore, there is no unanimity (agreement) among psychologists on the issue of whether human development is continuous or discontinuous, and this issue has been in the form of a debate.
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