BICTE Third Semester Learning Psychology Complete Note

Unit 1: Learning Psychology

The word "psychology" has its roots in Greek, where "psyche" means "soul" and "logos" means "study". Thus, the literal meaning of psychology is the "study of the soul." In modern times, psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and personality.

Although the exact date is not known, the development of psychology is believed to have coincided with human civilization. However, it originated as an independent branch in the late 19th century with the founding of the first psychology laboratory by Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, Germany. Since then it  evolved into a diverse and dynamic field with many practical applications. Earlier it was a part of  philosophy (metaphysics), physics, and physiology.

 

1.1. Meaning, Definition and Characteristics of Learning

a.     Meaning and Definition of Learning

Learning is a continuous and natural process that occurs throughout our lives, from the time we are in the womb until we die. It is a process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors through experiences and interactions with our environment. Without learning, life would be meaningless and colorless.

Learning affects our thoughts, language, motivations, emotions, personalities, and attitudes, and helps us adapt to the changing conditions of the world around us. It shapes and controls our actions, and influences our decision-making processes.

Learning is not just a change in our behavior or actions; it also refers to a change in our internal state of knowledge. It can be intentional or unintentional, and can occur through various means, such as observation, trial and error, or instruction.

Everything a learner does or thinks is learning. However, the changes in behaviour resulting due to the effects of maturation, instinct, reflex, fatigue, habituation, drugs, illness or injury are not considered as learning. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour of the learner it even brings changes in the personality traits of the learner.

Different psychologists and educationists have their own unique definition of learning. Some view it as a process, while others view it as a change in performance or the acquisition and retention of knowledge. Some of these unique definitions are presented below:

“The basis of learning is to gain knowledge after observing the whole structure. Responding towards the full situation is learning.”

                   - Gestalt’s view

“The learning as the direct cognitive organization of a situation. Motivation has a significant role and place in learning.”

                    - Kurt Lewin

“Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses.”                       

                      -  Woodworth

“Learning is the process by which the individuals acquires various habits, knowledge, and attitudes that are necessary to meet the demands of life, in general”

                - G.D. Boaz (1984)

“Leaning is shown by a change in behaviour as a result of experience.”

                       - Cronbach

“Learning is process in which neutral stimulus by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all characteristics of neutral stimulus.”         

                                 - Pavlov

 “Learning is a process by which behaviour is originated or change through practice or training.”

                - Kingsley and Garry

“Learning is a strengthening of a stimulus response association by following response with a reinforced stimulus.”

-         B. F. Skinner

“Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation.” – Skinner

“Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behaviour due to experience.”    - Myers 1999

 “Learning is any permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience.”

-          Morgan, King, Weiz,  and Schopler,1993, ,

“Learning is an enduring changes in behaviour or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion which results from practice or other forms of experience.”

-         Shuell, 1986

In summary, learning is a crucial concept in psychology, and it affects all aspects of our lives. It is a lifelong process that enables us to acquire new knowledge and skills, and adapt to the changing conditions of our environment. It is the process of engaging and manipulating objects, experiences and conversations in order to build mental models of the world. Learning is a process not the product and continues from birth to death.

 

B. Characteristics of learning

Characteristics of learning refer to the unique features or attributes that are common to all forms of learning. These include:

·       Learning is a lifelong process: Learning is not limited to a specific period of time, it is a continuous process that continues throughout one's life. We learn new things every day and the knowledge we acquire helps us to adapt to the changes in our environment.

 

·       Learning is universal: Learning is not limited to a specific group of people or a particular culture. It is a universal process that applies to everyone, regardless of their age, gender, race, or ethnicity.

 

·       Learning is an essential process: Learning is an essential process that is required for personal and professional development. It helps us to acquire new skills, knowledge, and attitudes that enable us to perform better in our lives.

 

·       Learning is continuous: Learning is a continuous process that happens throughout our lives. It is not limited to a specific time or place, and we can learn anytime and anywhere.

 

·       Learning is development: Learning helps us to develop our cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains. It enables us to enhance our abilities and skills, and to grow as individuals.

 

·       Learning is adjustment: Learning involves the process of adjustment and adaptation to new situations and environments. It helps us to adjust to changes and challenges in our lives.

 

·       Learning is a product of environment: Learning is influenced by the environment in which it occurs. The environment provides the context in which learning takes place and shapes our experiences.

 

·       Learning is organization of experiences: Learning involves the organization of our experiences into meaningful patterns. It helps us to make sense of the world around us and to apply what we have learned to new situations.

 

·       Learning is discovery: Learning involves the process of discovery and exploration. It enables us to discover new ideas, concepts, and perspectives, and to expand our horizons.

 

·       Learning is based on maturation: Learning is influenced by our maturation process. It involves the acquisition of skills and knowledge that are appropriate to our developmental stage.

 

·       Learning is an active process: Learning is an active process that requires our participation and engagement. We need to be actively involved in the learning process in order to acquire new knowledge and skills.

 

·       Learning is purposive: Learning is driven by a purpose or goal. We engage in learning activities because we want to achieve something or acquire a particular skill or knowledge.

 

·       Learning is a fundamental process of life: Learning is a fundamental process of life that enables us to adapt to our environment and to grow as individuals.

 

·       Learning is process as well as product: Learning is a continuous and dynamic process that takes place through various means. The outcome of this process is the product of learning, which can be measured and assessed, such as a new skill, a change in behavior, or an increase in knowledge.

 

·       Learning is change or modification of behavior through activities, experiences and conditions of learning: Learning involves a change or modification in behavior that occurs as a result of our experiences and activities in different learning environments.

 

·       Learning is the nature or tendency of human beings: Learning is a natural tendency of human beings. We are wired to learn and adapt to new situations and environments.

 

·       Learning is the process of mental development – cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain, i.e. structural learning: Learning involves the development of our cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains. It enables us to think, act, and feel in more complex and sophisticated ways.

 

·       Learning is psychological, social and problem solving process: Learning is a psychological, social, and problem-solving process. It involves the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, and attitudes, as well as the ability to solve problems and work collaboratively with others.

 

·       Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and attitudes: Learning involves the acquisition of various skills, knowledge, and attitudes that contribute to an individual's personal and professional growth.

 

·        Learning is the process of adjustment and conditioning: Learning requires individuals to adjust and condition their behavior and actions to suit their environment.

 

·       Learning is the product of heredity and environment: Learning is the result of both our genes and the world around us. Our genes determine the structure and function of our brain, while our experiences, interactions, and environment influence how our brain develops and learns. Both our genes and environment are important in shaping how we learn and acquire knowledge.

 

·       Learning is both a formal, non-formal, and controlled or open process: Learning can occur through a variety of settings and methods, including formal education, non-formal education, and informal learning.

 

·       Learning is both individual and social: Learning is an individual process, where each person's experiences, abilities, and knowledge differ. However, learning is also social, influenced by social interactions, cultural norms, and institutions. Individuals learn from one another and social structures shape what is learned and how it is learned.

 

1.2 Nature of Learning

Nature of learning means fundamental essence or basic qualities inherent in the process of learning. It explains what learning is, how it occurs, and its broader implications. The nature of learning encompasses not just the observable characteristics but also the underlying principles and dynamics that govern the process. From the meanings, definitions, and characteristics of learning mentioned above, its nature or essence can be described as follows:

a.     Learning is an active process. It occurs only when learners are directly engaged and not in a passive state.

b.    Learning is purposeful. It happens when learners have specific intentions to change their behaviours.

c.     Learning involves progressive change which entails a gradual modification or replacement of old behaviours with new ones.

d.    Learning is lifelong: It begins in infancy and continues throughout one's life, extending beyond any specific age or stage, persisting until death.

e.     Learning is dependent on motivation. Information about how and where to acquire knowledge and skills, and understanding their utility and benefits, influences learning.

f.      Learning cannot be directly observed, but one can gauge it by observing an individual's abilities and performance.

g.     Learning is universal and continuous. It transcends age and location, persisting from birth until death.

h.    A person's behaviour may not change immediately with learning.  Continuous practice and use of what has been learned can bring about a positive change in the learner's behaviour.

i.       In learning, both remembering and forgetting happen. Some things we learn, we forget, while other things we remember over time. Factors like situation, time, context, subject matter, and necessity influence what we remember and forget.

j.       Learning can happen vertically and horizontally. Vertical learning means tackling more difficult and complex things, which positively changes how we work. Horizontal learning means organizing and developing what we've learned into a unified and structured form.

k.    Changes caused by illness, maturity, sickness, fatigue, medication, and substance abuse are not considered part of learning.

l.       Various signals, messages, goals, and objectives contribute to a person's learning ability and pace.

m.  Learning can be formal, non-formal, or informal.

n.    Each individual's personal differences cause variations in the rate and extent of learning. Both desire and ability contribute to learning.

o.    Learning is a permanent change in behaviour.

p.    Learning is a functional association of mental events.

 

1.3 Factors Influencing Learning

Learning is influenced by numerous factors. The elements such as gender, personal traits, genetics, environment, mental and emotional aspects, personality traits etc. hugely impact how individuals absorb knowledge and skills. Some of these factors are discussed below:

a.     Gender factor

Generally there is no any difference in learning because of sexual difference.  However, the gender influences may affect how we learn because society often expects different things from boys and girls. These expectations can affect the subjects we're encouraged to study, the way we're taught, and even how much support we get in school. Our bodies and hormones also play a part in how we learn. Additionally, how we interact with friends and what our culture thinks is okay for boys or girls can also impact how we approach learning.

b.    Physiological factor

Physiological factors are related to the proper functioning of different organs and system of our body. The factors like health and wellness, brain and glandular function, sensory organs, nervous system, maturity, heredity, sleep and rest, balance diet, body need, development stages etc. strongly influence learning. For example, being well-rested and healthy helps us concentrate and remember things better. Similarly, having a balanced diet supports brain function, aiding in improved learning and focus. Hormonal changes, especially during adolescence, can affect mood and attention, thereby influencing the learning process. Besides, physical defect such as blindness, dumbness, deafness etc. not only limit the ability of individual to learn but also delays their maturation process. Overall, our body's physiological state plays a vital role in shaping how effectively we learn and understand new concepts.

c.     Psychological factor

Psychological factors another important factor influencing learning. Internally, factors like motivation, needs, interest, attention, effort, intelligence, memory, and retention greatly influence learning. Externally, reinforcement, reward, punishment, feedback, and practice also impact an individual's learning process. These external factors strengthen desired behaviours, correct responses, and contribute to information processing, ultimately shaping the nature and process of learning.

d.    Environmental factor

The environment plays a crucial role in learning by shaping experiences, providing stimuli, and impacting motivation. Factors like a supportive atmosphere, resources, cultural influences, and access to technology significantly affect how individuals perceive, process, and retain information. A positive environment either in school such as supportive teacher’s behaviour, appropriate teaching method and materials, class conduct, desk and bench, cleanness etc. or outside the boundaries of school such as positive family, community and neighbour atmosphere can enhance learning outcomes by fostering engagement, curiosity, and cognitive development. Conversely, negative environments, distractions, or lack of resources can impede learning progress.

e.     Instructional factor

Instructional factors also play a important role in shaping the learning process. They include the methods, strategies, materials, and environments used to impart knowledge and facilitate understanding. Effective instructional design considers learners' diverse needs, employing varied techniques to engage, motivate, and challenge individuals. Clear explanations, interactive activities, relevant examples, and feedback mechanisms are crucial components influencing comprehension and retention. Moreover, the pacing, sequencing, and organization of information significantly impact learners' ability to grasp concepts.

1.4 Philosophical Foundations of Learning Theories

Learning theories are based on different philosophical foundations that influence how we understand and approach learning. Two of the main philosophical foundations of learning theories are:

1.2.1.          Empiricism and behaviourism

1.2.2.          Rationalism and cognitivism

1.4.1  Empiricism and behaviourism

a. Empiricism

I. Introduction

 The word empiricism comes from the Greek word "empeiria," which means "experience." The term was first used in the 17th century by the British philosopher Francis Bacon to describe a method of acquiring knowledge based on observation and experience. However, it was John Locke who popularized the term in his "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1689), where he argued that all knowledge comes from sensory experience. Therefore, John Locke is considered as a father of modern empiricism.

Empiricism is the belief that all knowledge comes from our senses and experiences. This means that our ideas and concepts are based on what we see, hear, taste, touch, and smell. Empiricists don't believe in any ideas that exist before we have sensory experiences. According to this theory, a child's mind is like a bank sheet of paper (tabula rasa).  As the sense organs collect various experiences, the empty mind becomes filled with knowledge. Empiricists think that all knowledge is gained through learning and perception. Our senses are the "gateway" to knowledge, and when we experience something, we create simple ideas about it in our minds. These simple ideas can then be combined to form more complex ideas. For example, when we taste, see, and touch an apple, we create simple ideas about its taste, color, and texture, and we can then combine these ideas to form the more complex idea that an apple is a fruit. Empiricism involves two learning mechanisms: developing simple ideas through sensory data, and combining those ideas to form complex ideas.

The term empiricism has been used to describe a philosophical approach that emphasizes the role of experience and observation in the acquisition of knowledge. Empiricists believe that knowledge is gained through the senses and that any knowledge not based on empirical evidence is unreliable or uncertain. This approach has been influential in fields such as learning psychology, where empirical methods are used to study behavior and mental processes, and in science, where observation and experimentation are central to the scientific method.

II. Key features of Empiricism

According to Hilgard and Bowe, empiricism possesses following characteristic features:

·       Sensationalism: Knowledge is derived through sensory experience, and sense perception is a major aspect of constructing reality.

·        Reductionism: Complex ideas are built from simple ideas that can be reduced to basic elements.

·       Associationism: Mental elements or ideas are linked together through association by contiguity in experience.

·       Mechanism: The mind operates like a machine, made up of simple elements, and can be understood through the application of mechanistic principles.

 

b.    Behaviourism

I. Introduction

Behaviorism is a philosophy of learning that originated in the early 20th century with the work of American psychologist John B. Watson who believed that environment shapes children's behavior through conditioning. Other notable behaviorists include Ivan P. Pavlov, Edward Lee Thorndike, Burrhus Fredrick Skinner, and E.R. Guthrie.

The major premises of learning theories according to behaviorism are that learning is the relation between stimulus in the environment and the response to these stimuli. According to behaviorism, learning or knowing is the behavior or habit formation that is obtained from the connection between stimulus and response. The behaviorist perspective emphasizes the importance of environmental factors in shaping behavior and stresses the role of conditioning in learning.  The behaviorist approach emphasizes the importance of observable behavior rather than internal mental processes in understanding human learning and behavior.

According to behaviorism, all behavior, including thoughts and emotions, can be explained through the environmental factors that shape it. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors can be described without considering internal physiological events or hypothetical constructs such as the mind.

In summary, behaviorism as the base of learning focuses on the importance of observable behavior, conditioning, and the relationship between stimuli and responses. It has had a significant impact on psychology and education, and continues to influence the way we understand human behavior and learning.

II. Characteristics of behaviouristic learning

Behaviourist learning theory has distinctive features that set it apart from other approaches to learning. Some of these features include:

·       Naturalistic and objective view: Behaviourism sees the natural world as the ultimate reality and explains everything in terms of natural laws. This perspective suggests that humans have no soul or mind, only a brain that responds to external stimuli.

·       Human behaviour is a product of conditioning: Behaviourism teaches that human behaviour is the result of conditioning. According to this theory, we are biological machines that react to stimuli, and our behavior is a product of our conditioning.

·       Lack of responsibility for actions: Behaviourism emphasizes environmental factors that shape behaviour rather than personal responsibility. We are simply machines, reacting to stimuli and operating in our environment to achieve certain goals. Therefore, behaviourism denies personal responsibility in learning. We are not responsible for our actions.

·       Manipulative: Behaviorism seeks not only to understand human behavior but also to predict and control it. This makes it a manipulative approach to learning.

·       Sensory input as the gateway to knowledge: Behaviourism believes that learning occurs through sensory experiences, and that individuals change their behaviour based on associating their behavior with a new experience related to a specific stimulus.

·       Learning through stimulus-response pairing: Learning occurs through pairing the response with a stimulus, which is strengthened by contiguity among them and recurring practice.

·       Practice strengthens learning: Repetition of a behaviour strengthens the association between a stimulus and response.

·       Positive and negative reinforcement: Learners develop associations between stimuli and responses for which they receive positive reinforcement. In the presence of negative reinforcement, they abstain from a specific response for a specific stimulus.

Overall, behaviourism emphasizes the importance of objective observation, conditioning, and environmental factors in understanding human behaviour and learning.

The relationship between behaviourism and Empiricism

The points highlighting the relationship between behaviorism and empiricism are:

Similarities:

·       Both are based on the scientific method of observation and experimentation.

·       They emphasize the importance of sensory experience in shaping behavior.

·       They view the mind as a blank slate that is moulded by experience.

 

Differences:

·       Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior and ignores mental processes, while empiricism emphasizes the role of mental processes in shaping behavior.

·       Behaviourism tends to be more deterministic, while empiricism acknowledges the role of free will and choice.

·       Behaviourism relies on reinforcement and punishment to shape behaviour, while empiricism emphasizes the role of cognitive processes, such as perception, memory, and attention, in shaping behaviour.

·       Behaviourism tends to be more focused on the present, while empiricism emphasizes the role of past experiences in shaping behavior.

·       Behaviourism views behaviour as a response to stimuli, while empiricism emphasizes the active role of the individual in shaping their own behaviour.

·       Behaviourism tends to be more concerned with overt behaviour, while empiricism is concerned with both overt and covert behaviour, including mental processes and subjective experience.

 

1.4.2 Cognitivism and Rationalism

a. Cognitivism

I. Introduction

Cognitivism, also known as cognitive psychology, is a branch of psychology that focuses on how people process, understand, and learn information. It is based on the belief that mental processes, such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving, are key to understanding human behavior and learning. Cognitivism focuses on inner mental activities—opening the "black box" of the human mind.  It assumes that humans are not "programmed animals" who only respond to environmental stimuli;  but as a rational beings they need active participation to learn, and whose actions are the result of thinking.

Cognitive psychologists study how people acquire and use knowledge, how they perceive and interpret information, and how they solve problems. They are interested in understanding the mental processes involved in learning and how these processes affect behaviour. It focuses on exploring the inner mental activities that lead to learning and problem-solving. This approach sees knowledge as schema or symbolic mental constructions, and learning as a change in a learner's schemata.

Cognitivism emerged in response to behaviorism's limitations and emphasizes internal mental processes to understand human behavior.There were several pioneers and proponents of cognitive psychology. Some of the most notable figures include George Miller, Ulric Neisser, Jerome Bruner, Allen Newell, and Herbert Simon.

II. Characteristics of Cognitivism

The main characteristics of Cognitivism is presented pointwise below:

·       Focus on mental processes: Cognitivism focuses on the mental processes involved in learning, such as perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving.

·       Importance of prior knowledge: Cognitivism emphasizes the importance of prior knowledge and experience in learning new information and skills.

·       Active learning: Cognitivism encourages active learning, where learners are actively engaged in the learning process and can apply what they have learned in new contexts.

·       Learner-centered approach: Cognitivism places the learner at the centre of the learning process, with a focus on understanding the individual's cognitive processes and how they acquire and use knowledge.

·       Use of technology: Cognitivism supports the use of technology in learning, including multimedia and interactive instructional materials, simulations, and educational software.

·       Evidence-based approach: Cognitivism emphasizes the use of scientific evidence and research to understand how learning occurs and to develop effective instructional methods.

·       Multiple intelligences: Cognitivism acknowledges the existence of multiple intelligences, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligence.

B. Rationalism

I. Introduction

Rationalism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the use of reason and logical thinking to understand the world around us. Rationalists believe that knowledge can be gained through reason and intuition rather than solely relying on sensory experience. This means that they place a higher value on concepts like deductive reasoning and a priori knowledge (knowledge that can be understood without prior experience).

The theory of rationalism emerged in the 17th century in opposition to the empirical approach. It is believed to be originated in ancient Greece, with Plato as its main proponent. Plato believed in discovering knowledge through reason and logical thought instead of sensory experience. Rationalism was further developed by philosophers such as René Descartes in the 17th century, who emphasized skepticism and doubt in the pursuit of knowledge. He said "I think, therefore I am". He argued that knowledge gained through reason and intuition was more reliable than knowledge gained through sensory experience, which can be misleading. It was further advocated by W. Leibniz, B.S. Spinoza, Simulant, and F. Voltaire. It was Denis Diderot who coined the term "rationalism."

Rationalists also emphasize the importance of innate ideas, or ideas that are present in the mind at birth, as a foundation for knowledge. By experiencing, observing, touching, or hearing, one can learn about the external form or properties of an object. However, the use of wisdom is necessary to identify the true properties. Therefore, we can obtain knowledge of all things on earth through the use of reasoning.

II. Basic concept or learning doctrine of rationalism

The basic concepts or learning doctrines of rationalism are as follows:

·       Reason is the primary source of knowledge and truth.

·       The world is a rational and orderly place, and it is possible to understand it through reason.

·       All humans possess the innate capacity for rational thought and understanding.

·       Empirical evidence is important, but reason should be used to interpret and make sense of it.

·       Deductive reasoning is an important tool for discovering knowledge and understanding the world.

·       Skepticism is necessary to test and validate knowledge claims.

·       Science and mathematics are considered to be the most reliable and objective methods of acquiring knowledge.

The relation between Cognitivism and Rationalism

Here are some points comparing and contrasting rationalism and Cognitivism:

Similarities:

·       Both emphasize the role of reason and rationality in learning and knowledge acquisition.

·       Both reject behaviorism's emphasis on external stimuli and reinforcement as the primary drivers of learning.

·       Both place a strong emphasis on mental processes, such as perception, memory, and thinking.

Differences:

·       Rationalism is primarily concerned with the innate abilities of the mind, while cognitivism is more focused on the processes of learning and the acquisition of knowledge.

·       Rationalism emphasizes deductive reasoning, while Cognitivism focuses on the scientific method and empirical evidence.

·       Rationalism tends to be more abstract and philosophical, while Cognitivism is more practical and experimental.

·       Rationalism places more emphasis on innate knowledge and understanding, while Cognitivism emphasizes the importance of learning from experience and the environment.

·       Rationalism tends to be associated with earlier thinkers such as Descartes and Leibniz, while cognitivism is a more recent development in psychology and education.

 

Unit 2: Behaviouristic Theories (20)

Behaviourism is a philosophy of learning that originated with John B. Watson in the early 20th century. Other notable behaviourists include Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, and Guthrie. The theory posits that the environment shapes behaviour through conditioning, which involves the association between environmental stimuli and behavioural responses.

According to behaviourism, learning is the result of the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioural responses. This means that learning or knowledge acquisition is the formation of habits or behaviours that occur as a result of the connection between a stimulus and a response. The theory emphasizes the importance of environmental factors in shaping behaviour, and stresses the role of conditioning in learning. Behaviourists focus on observable behaviour rather than internal mental processes to understand human learning and behaviour.

 2.1    Introduction to Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)

Classical conditioning also known as Pavlovian conditioning is a theory of learning that was first described by Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936) in the late 1900s. He was awarded the Nobel Prize  in 1904 for his work on the physiology of digestion. When Pavlov was studying how dogs digest food, he  noticed that the dogs began to salivate at the sound of a bell even before they saw the food. This  discovery became an important principle of learning that explains how we can learn to associate one thing with another, and that can be applied to many different types of behaviours. Pavlov named this theory of learning as “conditioned reflex theory”.  Later, B.F. Skinner renamed it as classical conditioning.

What is classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus (one that does not elicit a particular response) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (one that naturally elicits a particular response) in such a way that the neutral stimulus eventually elicits the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. In other word; it is the pairing of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned response. (In his experiment, a neutral stimulus: bell acquires the capacity to elicit saliva).

Classical conditioning is crucial in learning, creating specific behaviors and responses by associating stimuli. This knowledge can be used to develop effective strategies for changing behavior, treating anxiety disorders and phobias, and training animals. Moreover, it is also useful in various other fields such as advertising, and marketing.

 

2.1.1 Experiment on dog and Basic process of conditioning

a. Experiment on dog

Pavlov tied a hungry dog for 24 hours in a mechanically controlled laboratory, where he placed an automatic device to provide food to the dog easily. He operated the dog's salivary gland and arranged to collect the saliva in a glass tube. He observed the dog's reaction when he sounded a bell and placed food near the dog. The dog salivated at the sight of the food.  Pavlov then consistently rang the bell at the specific time of feeding. As a result, the dog established a connection between the bell and the food, and salivated at the sound of the bell. Pavlov then stopped providing food with the bell ringing. Despite not receiving food, the dog continued to became restless and salivate. Pavlov saw that bell ringing still elicited a natural response (salivation).

This experiment demonstrated that an initially neutral stimulus (the sound of the bell) could come to elicit a specific response (salivation) after being repeatedly paired with a naturally occurring stimulus (food). He termed this process of pairing the neutral stimulus with the naturally occurring stimulus is known as classical conditioning.

B. Basic process of conditioning

The basic process of classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus (such as a sound of bell) with a naturally occurring stimulus (such as food) so that the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the naturally occurring stimulus, and can eventually produce a similar response. The process involves:

a. Presentation of unconditioned stimulus with neutral stimulus: This involves repeatedly presenting the bell (NS) with the food (UCS) in close succession.

 b. Time proximity:  Both stimuli should be presented in quick succession because if the time interval is too long, the relationship between them will not be established and the established relationship will be lost.

 

c. Repetition: Repetition is required to establish the connection between the stimuli to obtain expected response.

d. Achievement of desired response:  It is the phase of obtaining conditioning that is habit formation.

e. Extinction: If the conditioned stimulus (CS) is not repeatedly presented with the natural stimulus (UCS) 2-4 times, salivation does not occur, or the conditioned response may be eliminated.

The process or  experimental paradigm of Classical conditioning (C. C.) Learning can be illustrated by the following diagram:

First phase: before conditioning

UCS (meat) -------------------- UCR ( saliva)

NS (bell) ---------------------- No UCR ( Saliva)

Second phase: conditioning

NS (bell) + UCS (meat) ---- UCR ( saliva)

Third phase: after conditioning

NS (now CS) ( bell) ---------------------- CR (saliva)

Definitions of Terms Used 

Stimulus (S): Any object or event that can be detected by one of the five senses and that can potentially elicit a response from an organism.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a particular response without any prior learning.

Response (R): Any observable behavior or action that is produced by an organism as a result of a stimulus. For example, salivating when presented with food is a response.

Unconditioned response (UCR): The natural and automatic response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus. For example, salivating in response to the smell of food is an unconditioned response.

Conditioned stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a particular response on its own. For example, a bell ringing is a neutral stimulus, but if it is paired with the smell of food repeatedly, it can become a conditioned stimulus that elicits salivation.

Conditioned response (CR): The response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus after the two have been repeatedly paired together. For example, salivating in response to the sound of a bell that has been paired with the smell of food is a conditioned response.

 

2.1.2 Phenomena and characteristics of classical conditioning

Phenomena and characteristics of classical conditioning refer to the various principles and processes that govern how conditioning learning occurs. Some key phenomena and characteristics include:

a.     Stimulus generalization: Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency in which a conditioned response is elicited by a stimulus that is similar but not identical to the original conditioned stimulus. It means that when we respond to similar stimuli as if they were the original stimulus. For example, if a person was stung by a bee and develop a fear response, s/he may also become fearful of wasps, hornets, or other insects that are similar in appearance. This happens because our brains associate the similar stimuli with the original stimulus, and we respond in a similar way. The degree of similarity between the stimuli and the conditioned stimulus will determine the strength of the response.

b.    Stimulus Discrimination: Stimulus discrimination is the opposite of stimulus generalization, referring to the ability to distinguish between a specific conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli. Stimulus discrimination can occur in a range of situations. For example, if someone has a fear of heights, they may be able to discriminate between different heights and only feel fear at certain heights, such as standing on top of a tall building, rather than on a ladder or a step stool.  It can also occur in social situations, such as recognizing different accents or dialects within a language.

c.     Inhibition: In classical conditioning, inhibition refers to the learning of a negative association between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), where the CS predicts the absence of the UCS. It means learning that a signal (like a bell) predicts the absence of something (like food) rather than its presence. For example, a dog that hears a bell repeatedly without getting food may learn that the bell means no food and stop drooling. Inhibition can also happen when one signal is better at predicting something than another, causing the second signal to become inhibitory.

 

d.    Extinction: Extinction refers to the gradual disappearance or weakening of a learned response over time.  In other words, extinction is the process by which an association between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response is gradually weakened or disconnected. In Pavlov's classical conditioning, when the bell was presented repeatedly without the food, the dogs eventually stopped salivating in response to the bell.

e.     Spontaneous recovery:  Spontaneous recovery refers to the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR) after a period of time has passed. For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, and then the bell is repeatedly presented without food, eventually the dog will stop salivating. However, if the bell is presented again after a period of time, the dog may exhibit a weak, but noticeable, salivary response. This phenomenon suggests that the original learning has not been completely erased and that the CR can be reactivated under certain circumstances.

 

2.1.3 Educational implications of classical conditioning

The Classical Conditioning Theory has several implications for education, which are relevant to the teaching and learning process. It can be enlisted as follows:

·       Training: The Classical Conditioning Theory can be applied in the training of animals and humans. For instance, pets are trained using this theory to behave in a certain way. Similarly, the theory can also be used to teach human beings expected behaviors, such as ethical conduct, by conditioning them.

·       Removing Special Fear: The Classical Conditioning Theory can be used to remove specific fears that people may have. For example, children or elderly may feel scared of a certain things, and the theory can help them overcome such fears by gradually exposing them to the suitable stimuli.

·       Developing balanced emotions: Learner can experience unnecessary fear, anxiety, stress, attachment, jealousy, etc. which can hinder learning. For example, a student who is afraid of the teacher may also fear his subject. Similarly, a teacher who teaches with love and care can make the subject easier to understand. In such a situation, if teaching is done by removing such stimulus that hinders the obstacle, the teaching and learning can be made effective by bringing emotional improvements.

·       Formation of good habits: The main objective of classical conditioning is formation  of good habits such as going to school regularly, doing homework, respecting elders, and staying clean. Good habits can be developed by conditioning according to the appropriate time and process. For instance, creating a pleasant and home-like environment in school or giving favorite toys while going to school can help children develop the habit of going to school regularly.

 

·       Elimination of bad habits: Classical conditioning is useful for eliminating certain negative habits in students, such as using foul language, engaging in various bad habits such as stealing, running away, using addictive substances, gambling, speaking rudely, etc. They can be conditioned to overcome such antisocial behavior.

 

·       Verbal learning: Classical conditioning can be used to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one to aid in verbal learning. For example, a child can be taught the association between the letter "B" and the word "ball" by repeatedly presenting the letter "B" alongside a picture or an actual ball, while saying "B for ball". Eventually, the child learns to associate the letter "B" with the word "ball" through the process of classical conditioning. It aids in memorization and retention of the new vocabulary.

 

·       Sports teaching: The classical conditioning is very useful in subject like physical education while teaching sports skills.  Coaches can use it to shape athlete's behaviors and create positive associations with learning. For example, a coach may praise an athlete every time they perform a specific movement correctly, leading to improved performance and increased motivation to learn.

 

2.2 Operant Conditioning (Skinnerian Conditioning)

2.2.1 Introduction to Operant Conditioning

The founder of operant conditioning theory is renowned American psychologist and behaviourist Burrhus Frederic Skinner (BF Skinner). Therefore, the theory is also known as the Skinnerian conditioning. Skinner was born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, in 1904, and earned his Ph.D. in psychology from Harvard University in 1931.

Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is modified version of Pavlov's classical conditioning. His influential works, such as "The Behaviour of Organism," "Science of Behaviour," and "Walden Two," focused on behaviour as the foundation of psychology, rather than mental processes.

What is operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning is a learning process where behaviour is modified through reinforcement or punishment of consequences.

Skinnerian conditioning is based on the S-R (Stimulus-Response) chain. According to Skinner, behavior operates in the environment to generate its consequences. It means that an organism's behavior is shaped by the consequences it produces in the environment. If the consequences of a behavior are positive or reinforcing, the organism is more likely to repeat that behavior in the future. On the other hand, if the consequences are negative or punishing, the organism is less likely to repeat that behavior in the future. Therefore, the environment plays a crucial role in shaping and reinforcing an organism's behaviour.

 Skinner's theory of conditioning identifies two types of behaviour: respondent and operant. Respondent behaviour refers to an automatic reaction to a specific stimulus, which is also known as type S or I behaviour as explained in the classical conditioning. Whereas operant behaviour is a type of behaviour that is modified by its consequences, either through reinforcement or punishment. it is also known as a type R or II behaviour.

2.2.2 Basic process of operant conditioning and experiment on rat

a. Experiment on rat

B.F. Skinner conducted a series of experiments with animals to observe how they learn new things. He wanted to understand how behaviour can be changed through reinforcement. He designed a box called a "Skinner box" which was similar to Thorndike's "puzzle box". The box had a bar or key that animals could press to receive food or water. This box also recorded their responses.

 In 1948, he conducted his first experiment on a rat where he placed it in the Skinner box and observed how the rat learned to press the lever to receive food. As soon as the rat was put in a box, it started exploring by moving around and touching things. Finally, it discovered a lever that released food when pressed. In the repeated experiment, he found that the rat learned to press the lever faster and faster each time to get the food quickly. Skinner termed this learning as an Operant Conditioning.

b. Basic process of operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is a learning process that involves modifying behaviour through consequences. The basic process of operant conditioning involves:

·       Acquisition of operant behaviour: This is the initial stage of learning, where an organism learns to associate a behaviour with a consequence. For example, a rat pressing a lever to receive food.

·       Behaviour shaping: This involves reinforcing successive approximations to the desired behaviour to mould it into the final behaviour. For example, shaping a rat to press the lever with a gradual increase in required effort.

·       Generalization: This is when the learned behaviour is applied to new situations similar to the original learning context. For example, a rat that learned to press a lever for food in one box can press it in another box.

·        Habit competition: This occurs when two behaviours compete for the same reinforcing consequence. For example, a rat may choose between pressing the lever and grooming. The organism will ultimately choose the behaviour that is most likely to deliver the reinforcing consequence it desires, while suppressing or extinguishing competing behaviours that do not offer the same level of reinforcement.

·       Chaining: This involves linking together a series of behaviours to create a complex sequence, with each behaviour acting as a cue for the next. For example, a rat may learn to press a lever, run to a corner, and then jump through a hoop.

·       Extinction: This is the gradual decrease and eventual disappearance of a behaviour due to the lack of reinforcement. For example, if the rat stops receiving food after pressing the lever, it will eventually stop pressing the lever.

 

2.2.3 Positive and negative reinforcement

Reinforcement is a stimulus/ consequence that strengthens the connection between a stimulus and a response and motivates individuals to engage in tasks repeatedly. It increases the likelihood of occurring the behaviour again and again in the future. In operant conditioning, there are two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

a.     Positive reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement is a type of reinforcement that involves adding something desirable or rewarding after a behaviour, which increases the likelihood of that behaviour happening again in the future. It is a way of encouraging and strengthening certain actions or responses. The reward can be anything tangible or intangible that the individual finds desirable, such as cash prize, trophy, medals, praise, hug or attention.

Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool that can be used to teach new behaviours or to strengthen existing ones. It is often used in education, parenting, and animal training.

Here are some examples of positive reinforcement:

·       A teacher gives a student a sticker for completing their homework.

·       A parent gives their child a hug for being kind to their sibling.

·       A dog trainer gives a dog a treat for sitting on command.

 

B. Negative reinforcement

Negative reinforcement involves the removal or avoidance of something unpleasant or aversive after a behaviour.  It serves as a reward for the behaviour which encourages the individual to repeat the behaviour in order to escape from or avoid the unpleasant stimulus in the future.

Here are some examples of negative reinforcement in relation to education:

·       A teacher gives a student a break from class if they raise their hand and answer a question correctly.

·       A parent allows their child to watch TV after they finish their homework.

·       A student stops talking in class after the teacher gives them a disapproving look.

 It is important to note that negative reinforcement should not be confused with punishment. Punishment involves the presentation of an undesirable consequence after an undesirable behaviour is exhibited. In contrast, negative reinforcement involves the removal of an undesirable consequence after a desirable behaviour is exhibited. The punishment aims to decrease unwanted behaviour by applying aversive consequences but negative reinforcement focuses on increasing desired behaviour by removing or avoiding aversive stimuli.

Negative reinforcement can be an effective tool for promoting positive behaviour change in the classroom. However, it is important to use it in a way that is fair and consistent. Additionally, it is important to be aware of the potential negative side effects of negative reinforcement, such as the development of anxiety or avoidance behaviours.

Schedule of reinforcement

 As suggested by operant conditioning theory of learning, following schedule of reinforcement can be executed effectively:

a.       Continuous reinforcement schedule: When reinforcement is given for every correct behaviour or response, this is called continuous reinforcement schedule. Under this schedule of reinforcement learning occurs very rapidly and this is more useful for establishing or strengthening new behaviour. Continuous schedule works in regard to expectation. For example: giving chocolate to the child for every time he helps his parents, giving praise to the student for every correct answer, providing a candy to the child every time S/he uses toilet etc.

b.      Partial or intermittent reinforcement schedule: It is a non-continuous patterns of delivering reinforcement. In this type, reinforcement is given occasionally either in a fixed ratio or in fixed interval or given randomly and thus reinforcement is unpredictable. This type of reinforcement generates greater resistance to extinction than with continuous reinforcement. The partial reinforcement schedule can be further classified into:

I.       The ratio schedules

II.      The interval schedules

 

I.       The ratio schedules

When reinforcement is provided in accordance with the number of desired responses, this is called ratio schedule. There are two types of ratio schedules. They are:

 

a.       Fixed ratio schedule: In this schedule, the reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses. That is, the organism gets reinforcement only after showing a fixed number of behaviors. For example a student is rewarded for every three or five correct answers etc.

 

b.      Variable ratio schedule: Here, the reinforcement is given at varying  number of responses or exact number of responses required in order to receive the reinforcement is not specified. The reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of desired responses. For example.,  a student is rewarded sometimes for three and sometimes for five correct answers etc. This type of reinforcement is very useful in producing high and steady response rates.

 

II.      The Interval schedules: This is the second type of intermittent or partial schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is provided considering the time limit. It is further divided into following two types:

a.       Fixed interval schedule: In this schedule, reinforcement is given for a response made only after a fixed interval of time, eg., every 3 minutes or every 5 minutes, every week, every month and so forth. It does not consider the number of correct responses made during that interval. For example a child may be rewarded once a week if their room is cleaned up, a weekly paycheck etc.  This schedule produces a drop in response immediately after reinforcement is achieved and a gradual increase in response as the time for the next reinforcement is about to come.

b.      Variable interval schedule:  In variable interval schedule, the reinforcement is provided after a variable amount of time interval. Here, the time interval changes after every reinforcement and it is irregular and unpredictable. For  example cross checking of homework by teacher from time to time, fishing by waiting, gambling etc. This schedule is very useful in making the behaviour steady and sustainable.

 

2.2.3 Principle of shaping

a.What is shaping?

The term "shaping" or "shaping behaviour" comes from the theory of operant conditioning. Shaping is a gradual learning process that occurs step by step. It can be defined as a process of reinforcing successive approximations of behaviour until the target behaviour is achieved.

 It is believed that new and complex skills cannot be learned all at once. It is possible if it is taught slowly, one after the other. Skinner used a schedule of reinforcement to train a mouse to carry marbles from one place and store them in a specific location. Additionally, he trained two pigeons to play table tennis using their beaks and claws as paddles.  Behaviour shaping is used to train animals and humans in acquiring complex behaviours.  During shaping, an organism receives reinforcement for each step that brings it closer to the desired behaviour.

Shaping is a powerful tool that can be used by clinicians, teachers, and parents when needed. To effectively shape behaviour, four key steps should be followed (Martin and Pear, 1999):

 

I.                  Identifying the target behaviour: In this step, the specific behaviour that needs to be developed or changed is determined. Defining the behaviour helps increase the likelihood of success in the shaping process.

II.               Selecting the starting behaviour: The entry point or starting behaviour for the shaping process is decided in this step.

III.           Establishing shaping steps: After determining the starting behaviour, the trainer creates a list of behaviours that progress step by step towards the target behaviour. Each successive approximation is reinforced.

IV.           Adjusting the pace: If the individual is not making progress, the trainer should try simpler steps. On the other hand, if progress is fast, the criteria for reinforcement should be raised. Positive or negative reinforcement and punishment play significant roles in the shaping process.

B. Principles of shaping

The modern principles of shaping as stated by Karen Pryor are as follows:

I.                  Be prepared before you start:  Be ready to click/treat immediately when the training session begins. When shaping a new behaviour, be ready to capture the very first tiny inclination the animal gives you toward your goal behaviour. This is especially true when working with a prop such as a target stick or a mat on the ground.

II.               Ensure success at each step: Break behavior down into small enough pieces that the learner always has a realistic chance to earn a reinforcer.

III.           Train one criterion at a time: Shaping for two criteria or aspects of a behavior simultaneously can be very confusing. One click should not mean two different criteria.

IV.           Relax criteria when something changes: When introducing a new criterion or aspect of the skill, temporarily relax the old criteria for previously mastered skills.

V.              If one door closes, find another: If a particular shaping procedure is not progressing, try another way.

VI.           Keep training sessions continuous: The animal should be continuously engaged in the learning process throughout the session. He should be working the entire time, except for the moment he's consuming/enjoying his reinforcer. This also means keeping a high rate of reinforcement.

VII.       Go back to kindergarten, if necessary: If a behavior deteriorates, quickly revisit the last successful approximation or two so that the animal can easily earn reinforcers.

VIII.    Keep your attention on your learner:  Interrupting a training session gratuitously by taking a phone call, chatting, or doing something else that can wait often cause learners to lose momentum and get frustrated by the lack of information. If you need to take a break, give the animal a "goodbye present," such as a small handful of treats.

IX.           Stay ahead of your learner: Be prepared to "skip ahead" in your shaping plan if your learner makes a sudden leap.

X.              Quit while you're ahead: End each session with something the learner finds reinforcing. If possible, end a session on a strong behavioural response, but, at any rate, try to end with your learner still eager to go on.

2.2.4 Educational implications of operant conditioning

Operant conditioning, advocated by B.F. Skinner, is highly useful for teaching, training, and behavior control. Skinner's research in 1954 highlighted its application in human education. They all work on the principle of reinforcement and punishment. The technique has gained prominence in various fields as follows:

a.     Programmed instruction

b.    Teaching machine

c.     Self management

d.    Token economy programs

e.     Verbal learning

f.      Group contingency

g.     Behaviour therapy

 

a.     Programmed instruction: Operant conditioning techniques are employed in programmed instruction, which involves breaking down learning materials into small, manageable steps and providing immediate feedback and reinforcement for correct responses.

b.    Teaching machine: A teaching machine is an instructional device or system designed to facilitate learning through programmed instruction. It typically presents instructional materials in a sequential manner, providing immediate feedback and reinforcement. Teaching machines can include various interactive elements, such as quizzes, exercises, and assessments. They are aimed at promoting self-paced learning, individualized instruction, and the mastery of specific subject matter or skills.

 

c.     Self-management: Operant conditioning can be utilized for self-management, where individuals learn to regulate and modify their own behaviors by setting goals, tracking progress, and rewarding themselves for achieving desired outcomes. For example, if an individual wants to lose weight, he might set a goal of losing 1 pound per week. He would then track his progress and give himself a reward, such as a new outfit or a night out with friends, when he reaches his goal.

 

d.    Token economy programs: In token economy programs, individuals receive tokens or points as rewards for exhibiting desired behaviors. These tokens can be exchanged for various privileges or incentives, promoting positive behavior change. It has been shown to be effective in a variety of settings, including schools, prisons, and mental health facilities.

 

e.     Verbal learning: It is a type of learning that involves the acquisition of new words or phrases. Operant conditioning can be used to promote verbal learning by providing positive reinforcement for correct responses and corrective feedback for incorrect responses. For example, a child who is learning to read might be given a sticker each time they correctly identify a word.

 

f.      Group contingency: Group contingency refers to applying operant conditioning techniques within a group setting. It involves reinforcing the behavior of an entire group based on the performance of individuals or a subset of the group, fostering cooperative behavior and encouraging positive group dynamics. For example, a class of students might be given a pizza party if they all turn in their homework on time.

 

g.    Behaviour therapy: Operant conditioning plays a crucial role in behavior therapy, a therapeutic approach that focuses on modifying maladaptive behaviors. In behavior therapy, individuals are taught to identify the triggers for their unwanted behaviours and to develop strategies for avoiding or managing those triggers. Behavior therapy has been shown to be effective in treating a variety of conditions, including anxiety, depression, and addiction.

 

Difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning

1.     CC: It is discovered by Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov.

OC: It is discovered by an American psychologist BF Skinner.

2.     CC: It is the pairing between involuntary responses (CR) with a neutral stimulus.

OC: It is the pairing between a voluntary responses with its consequence.

3.     CC: Organism is passive or reactive.

OC: Organism is active or proactive.

4.     CC: Learning is more reflexive in nature.

OC: Learning is more proactive in nature.

5.     CC: Stimulus comes first

OC: Behaviour comes first

6.     CC: Response is under the control of stimulus

OC: Response is under the control of organism

7.     CC: Reinforcement follows stimulus

OC: Reinforcement follows response

8.     CC: Extinction occurs by withdrawing UCS.

OC: Extinction occurs by withdrawing reinforcement.

2.3 Connectionism (Thorndike's Theory of Learning)

a. Introduction to Connectionism

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was a renowned American psychologist known for his work in educational psychology and animal behaviour. In 1913, he introduced his theory of connectionism, also known as the Trial and Error Theory of Learning, through his doctoral thesis titled "Animal Intelligence: An experimental study of the Association process in Animals." His theory is also known as bond psychology or theory of association. This theory was originally called “selecting and connecting” theory. Thorndike conducted experiments using animals like cats, dogs, and monkeys, often employing puzzle boxes. It was Thorndike who introduced the concept of reward in learning.

What is connectionism or Trial and Error?

Organisms generate multiple responses, including errors, when confronted with problems. With persistent effort and practice, the errors gradually diminish and eventually they achieve desired learning. In this way, learning is the formation of bond/ association or connection between stimulus and response through the process of trial and error.

 

In essence, Thorndike's theory proposes that learning occurs through the establishment of connections or associations between stimuli and responses through a process of trial and error. He observed that animals learn by trying different responses and gradually refining their behaviour based on the consequences they experience. Through his experiments, Thorndike found that behaviours leading to favourable outcomes are reinforced and more likely to be repeated, while behaviours resulting in unfavourable outcomes diminish over time.

Thorndike's theory of connectionism has had a significant impact on educational psychology. It highlights the importance of the consequences or rewards associated with behaviours in shaping learning and behaviour change. By understanding and applying this theory, educators can design effective teaching methods that encourage positive reinforcement and facilitate the formation of desired associations between stimuli and responses.

2.3.1 Basic process of conditioning (process of trial and error) and experiment on cat

a. Experiment on cat

Thorndike placed a hungry cat in a Puzzle Box, where all of the cat's behaviours were recorded by an automatic mechanism. Inside the box, there was a latch that the cat had to manipulate in order to escape. Outside the box, there was food (fish) visible. The cat attempted various actions such as scratching, jumping, meowing, and pawing to open and get out of the box. Initially, the cat was unfamiliar with the correct sequence of actions, but with persistent effort and practice, it accidentally pressed the latch and the box opened. After repeating this process for about five times, it was revealed that the cat gradually reduced its mistakes, and finally without any errors, it succeeded to open the latch and come out to get favourite food. This process was referred to as trial and error learning. Later, Thorndike conducted similar experiments with dogs and monkeys. Dogs made fewer errors compared to others. Based on this, Thorndike formulated the laws of learning, which he divided into primary and secondary laws.

B. Basic Process of Conditioning (process of trial and error)

The process of trial and error involves the following steps:

I.                   Emergence of a new situation/problem/block: The process begins when a new situation, problem, or obstacle arises that requires attention or resolution. This could be a challenge, barrier, or unfamiliar circumstance that demands a response. For instance, in an experiment involving a cat, the initial hurdle was the cat being confined in a box with a closed door. The closed door prevented the cat from easily accessing the food, presenting an obstacle or challenge to overcome. To address this, the organism needs to have a goal and drive.

 

II.                Multiple responses: Faced with the new situation, the organism instinctively engages in various random responses. These responses are spontaneous and driven by the organism's existing knowledge, instincts, or past experiences. The organism tries different actions or behaviors without a specific plan or strategy. In the cat experiment, the cat exhibited random movements in an attempt to escape the box. Without knowing the exact way to open the door, the cat experimented with various actions and behaviors in a trial and error manner.

 

 

III.             Chance success: Within the trial and error process, there is a possibility of chance success. Among the multiple random responses, some may accidentally lead to a successful outcome or solution. The organism may stumble upon the correct response through luck or without consciously understanding the cause-and-effect relationship between its actions and the desired result. In the experiment, the cat achieved chance success through continuous striving and random movements. By trying different movements, the cat accidentally succeeded in opening the door, achieving its goal of accessing the food.

 

IV.            Repetition of successful response and elimination of unsuccessful ones: If the organism experiences chance success, it repeats the actions or responses that led to the favorable outcome. By repeating the successful response, the organism increases the likelihood of achieving the desired result again. Simultaneously, it eliminates or reduces the frequency of incorrect or unsuccessful responses. Through repetition and comparison, the organism learns which responses are effective and which are not, gradually refining its behavior. In the experiment, the cat gradually recognized the correct way to pull the latch or perform the necessary actions to open the door. Through repeated attempts and observations, the cat began selecting the proper movements that consistently led to the desired outcome. It refined its behavior and focused on the specific movements that proved effective.

 

 

V.               Fixation: Over time, through repetition and elimination, the organism solidifies the correct response. It recognizes the cause-and-effect relationship between its actions and the desired outcome and focuses on the specific behavior that consistently leads to success. Fixation occurs as the organism learns from its experiences and reinforces the learned behavior. The correct response becomes ingrained and serves as a reliable solution to the given situation or problem. For example, through repetition and learning from past experiences, the cat eliminated all incorrect responses or movements that did not result in success. It reinforced only the correct responses, allowing it to consistently open the door without errors. The cat acquired knowledge and learned the correct way of opening the door through the process of fixation.

 

2.3.2 Primary Laws of Learning: (Law of readiness, law of exercise and law of effect)

Thorndike presented various laws of learning after conducting different experiments and tests. He divided these laws into two categories: primary and secondary. However, we shall discuss only about primary laws here:

a.     Law of readiness:

The Law of Readiness, proposed by Edward Thorndike, emphasizes the importance of psychological and motivational preparedness in the learning process. It suggests that effective learning occurs when an individual is prepared and motivated to learn, being mentally and physically ready.

Thorndike highlighted the crucial role of readiness in achieving successful learning outcomes. When individuals are ready, they are more likely to actively engage in the learning process, establish connections between new information and existing knowledge, and retain what they have learned. Therefore, it is necessary to create a suitable learning environment that aligns with the learner’s needs, interest, level and abilities. Similarly, the instructional contents and methods should also encourage active participation and engagement.

There are two subordinate laws that are associated with the Law of Readiness:

·        Law of Satisfaction: This subordinate law states that when learners are in a state of readiness and their responses are followed by a satisfying or rewarding outcome, the connections between the stimulus and response are strengthened. Positive reinforcement or rewards enhance the likelihood of the learned behavior being repeated.

·        Law of Annoyance: On the other hand, the Law of Annoyance states that when learners are in a state of readiness, but their responses are followed by an annoying or unsatisfying outcome, the connections between the stimulus and response are weakened. Negative consequences or punishments reduce the likelihood of the undesired behaviour being repeated.

B. The law of exercise

The Law of Exercise works on the familiar saying "Practice makes the man perfect". It means that practice is crucial for effective and lasting learning. When we practice a subject, whether it's new or something we've learned before, we improve our ability to learn faster and easier.

According to E.L. Thorndike's law of exercise, the more we practice, the stronger and more stable the connection between stimuli and responses (S-R) becomes which leads to more effective and enduring learning. However, it was later recognized that blind repetition alone is not enough to strengthen the S-R relationship and enhance learning. The introduction of rewards alongside practice becomes necessary. It was observed that about six attempts without a reward are equal to one attempt with a reward to reinforce the S-R connection. On this basis, the law of excise can further be divided into following two parts:

·        Law of Use: When we frequently use or practice what we've learned, whether it's new or old knowledge, it becomes more effective and enduring. Through practice, the relationship between stimuli and responses (S-R) strengthens and becomes more stable. Learning becomes more effective and lasting when the S-R relationship is adaptable. This principle aligns with the saying "Learning by doing," emphasizing that practice is a fundamental aspect of the learning process.

·        Law of Disuse: If we don't use learned information for a long time or neglect to reinforce and modify the S-R relationship, the knowledge gradually fades away and can be forgotten. Experiences and lessons that are not regularly utilized lose their significance over time.

In summary, the Law of Use highlights the importance of practicing and utilizing knowledge to strengthen the S-R relationship, while the Law of Disuse warns about the risk of forgetting when learned information is not regularly reinforced.

C. Law of effect

The Law of Effect explains how our learning is influenced by the experiences we have. When something we do leads to positive outcomes or rewards, we are more likely to do it again because it makes us feel good. On the other hand, when our actions result in negative consequences or punishments, we tend to do them less often because they make us feel unhappy and dissatisfied. This law applies to both humans and animals. We learn better when we are rewarded for our actions and less when we are punished.

After 1930, this law was further revised. It was observed that the influence of rewards and punishments is not equal and opposite. It means that rewards and punishments have different effects. Rewards increase the chances of a specific action being repeated, while punishments may not necessarily reduce the likelihood of an action being repeated. Punishments are not as effective in discouraging actions as rewards are in encouraging them. It was suggested that rewards strengthen the connection between what prompts our actions and how we respond, while punishments do not weaken this connection.

In summary, positive experiences and rewards motivate us to continue certain actions, while negative experiences and punishments make us less likely to repeat them.

 

2.3.3 Educational implications of Thorndike’s Theory

Thorndike's trial and error theory has great influence on  learning and behaviour modification. It has significant applications in education which are as follows:

·        Prepare students ready to learn: According to the trial and error theory, it is important to prepare students mentally and emotionally for the learning process. Teachers can create a conducive learning environment by establishing a positive classroom culture, setting clear expectations, and helping students develop a growth mindset. This prepares students to approach learning with a willingness to take risks, make mistakes, and learn from their experiences.

·        Emphasize exercise to strengthen the learning: The trial and error theory also suggests that students learn by practicing what they have learned. This means that teachers should provide opportunities for students to practice new skills and knowledge. They can do this through homework, classwork, and projects.

·        Create conducive learning environment: According to trial and error theory, it is important to create a positive and supportive learning environment where students feel safe to explore, take risks, and learn from failures without fear of judgment or embarrassment. A pleasant learning environment encourages students to persevere, seek help when needed, and maintain a positive attitude towards learning.

·        Use integrated approach in teaching: The trial and error theory suggests that students learn best when they are able to see how different concepts are related to each other. This means that teachers should use an integrated approach to teaching, which involves teaching multiple concepts at the same time. This can be done by using thematic units or by teaching across the curriculum.

·        Provide novelty of methods and materials in teaching: Incorporating novelty in teaching methods and materials can stimulate students' interest and engagement. Teachers can introduce new and innovative instructional approaches, technologies, and materials to make the learning experience more exciting and captivating. By providing novel experiences, educators can grab students' attention, spark curiosity, and enhance their motivation to explore and learn.

·        Use feedback: Feedback plays a crucial role in trial and error learning. Teachers should provide timely and constructive feedback that highlights students' strengths, identifies areas for improvement, and guides them towards achieving their learning goals. Feedback helps students understand the consequences of their actions, make adjustments, and refine their approaches.

·        Use reward and punishment as necessary: Rewards and punishments are vital in shaping behavior and learning outcomes. Educators can use rewards to reinforce positive behaviors and outcomes, while employing punishments sparingly to discourage undesirable behaviors and promote learning from mistakes. It is important to strike a balance, avoiding excessive rewards that may create dependency and excessive punishments that can lead to discouragement. Teachers should apply rewards and punishments judiciously, ensuring fairness and consistency for effective implementation. However, punishment should not be used as far as possible.

 

2.4 Applications of Integrated Approaches to Learning

An integrated approaches to learning is a teaching method that connects different subjects or disciplines to create a more holistic learning experience for students. It involves intentionally blending knowledge, skills, and concepts from different fields to provide a holistic and interconnected learning experience for students. By integrating various subjects, this approach aims to foster deeper understanding, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills by encouraging students to make connections and apply their learning across different contexts.

Benefits of Integrated Approaches to Learning

Some of the advantages of integrated approach to learning are as follows:

·        Integrated learning pays particular attention to an increase in understanding, retention, and application of general concepts.

·        It provides a better understanding of the content.

·        Integrated learning encourages active participation in relevant real-life experiences.

·        It serves as a connection between various curricular disciplines.

·         It develops higher-level thinking skills.

·        Ensures active participation by triggering the point of interest of students.

Applications of integrated approach to learning

The integrated approach to learning has a wide range of applications across different educational contexts. Here are a few examples:

a.     Project-Based Learning: Integrated learning can be implemented through project-based learning, where students work on a comprehensive project that integrates concepts from multiple subjects. For instance, a project on sustainable cities could involve elements of science (environmental impact), mathematics (data analysis), social studies (urban planning), and language arts (communication and presentation skills).

b.     STEM Education: Integrated learning is highly relevant in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education. Instead of teaching these subjects in isolation, educators can create interdisciplinary projects that encompass multiple STEM disciplines. For example, designing and building a renewable energy system involves principles from physics, engineering, and environmental science.

c.      Environmental Education: Integrated learning can be employed to address environmental issues and promote sustainability. Students can explore the interconnections between ecological systems, climate change, social dynamics, and economic factors. This approach allows them to understand the complex nature of environmental challenges and develop holistic solutions.

d.     Global Education: An integrated approach is valuable in global education, where students learn about different cultures, languages, and global issues. By integrating social studies, geography, history, language arts, and current events, students gain a deeper understanding of global interconnectedness, cultural diversity, and global challenges.

e.      Career and Technical Education (CTE): Integrated learning is applicable in CTE programs that prepare students for specific careers. For example, a program focused on robotics might integrate concepts from electronics, programming, engineering, and entrepreneurship. Students gain a comprehensive skill set that prepares them for various aspects of the robotics industry.

 

f.       Arts Integration: Integrating arts into other subject areas enhances creativity and critical thinking. For instance, incorporating visual arts, music, or drama into a literature unit can deepen students' understanding and interpretation of a literary work.

 

 

 2.5 Addressing learning difficulties through different learning approaches

Learning difficulties, or learning disabilities, are challenges individuals face in acquiring and processing information. They can affect areas like reading, writing, math, and comprehension. Causes include neurological, cognitive, and genetic factors. Common learning difficulties include dyslexia, dyscalculia, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Support and accommodations are crucial for individuals with learning difficulties to succeed academically and socially.

Learning difficulties can be addressed using different approaches such as:

1.       Differentiated Instruction: Teachers adapt their teaching methods, materials, and assessments to meet the diverse learning needs of students.

2.       Multi-Sensory Learning: Engaging multiple senses (sight, hearing, touch) helps individuals understand and remember information better.

3.       Personalized Learning: Instruction is tailored to individuals' strengths, weaknesses, interests, and learning styles, often using technology-based tools.

4.       Collaborative Learning: Working in groups or pairs allows students to learn from each other, develop social skills, and gain confidence.

5.       Assistive Technology: Tools like text-to-speech software, graphic organizers, and specialized apps aid reading, writing, and organization.

6.       Visual Aids and Mnemonics: Charts, diagrams, and memory aids help individuals process and recall information more effectively.

7.       Chunking and Simplification: Breaking down complex tasks or concepts into smaller parts makes learning more manageable.

8.       Regular Review and Reinforcement: Consistent practice and repetition of learned concepts enhance understanding and retention.

9.       Emotional Support and Positive Reinforcement: Providing encouragement and support helps individuals overcome emotional challenges and maintain a positive attitude towards learning.

10.     Individualized Education Plans (IEPs): Customized plans with specific goals, accommodations, and strategies are created for students with significant learning difficulties.

It's important to understand each person's unique challenges and strengths to implement the most suitable learning strategies.

 

Unit 3: Cognitive Theories

Cognitive theory focuses on how people think, learn, and behave. It suggests that our internal mental processes, such as perception, attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and decision-making, influence our behavior. The mind is seen as a computer-like system that processes information through various mental operations. Schemas, which are organized frameworks of information, help us make sense of new experiences and shape our thoughts and behaviors. Learning and development occur through acquiring, organizing, and modifying mental representations and schemas. Attention, memory, and thinking are key processes in cognitive theory. It recognizes the influence of social and environmental factors on cognitive processes. Cognitive theory has contributed to understanding the mind and improving learning, behavior, and mental health.

3.1 Kohler's Insightful Learning

3.1.1. Meaning and characteristics

a. Meaning of Insightful Learning

Insight learning, also known as the Gestalt theory of learning, is a cognitive learning process that involves perceiving and understanding the relationships and patterns in a situation as a whole. It was postulated by Wolfgang Kohler, a Gestalt psychologist, and his associate Koffka in the 1920s.

The term "Gestalt" refers to the idea of an organized or meaningful whole, where the elements are perceived together in a unified manner. According to the Gestalt psychologists, learning is not a mechanical process that can be achieved through blind repetition or reinforcement, as explained in behaviourist theories. Instead, learning is seen as a purposive, exploratory, and creative endeavour.

According to Kohler: "Insight is sudden awareness of the relationship among various elements in a situation. It reflects the capacity to combine elements into a meaningful whole."

 

According to Gestalts, "Insightful learning is a perceptual reorganization process. It involves the learner's ability to restructure and organize percepts and purposes in order to develop a new understanding or solution to a problem."

 

In a nutshell, insight learning is a type of learning in which learners actively engage in observation and evaluation of the problem at hand. They perceive the problem as a whole rather than focusing solely on the individual components. By mentally restructuring the problem and considering the relationships and interactions between the elements, they are able to generate a sudden solution or understanding. This process often occurs in a flash of insight, where the solution seems to emerge suddenly in the learner's mind, often described as an "aha" or “eureka” or a bolt of lightning moment.

B. Characteristics of Insightful Learning

Insightful learning has some key characteristics that set it apart from other types of learning:

I.                   Perception: Insightful learning begins with perceiving a problem, which involves looking at it from different angles allowing learners to recognize, analyse, and evaluate problems using their own experiences, knowledge, intellect, and abilities. It contributes to a comprehensive and enduring understanding of the subject matter or problems at hand.

II.                Central Mediation: Insightful learning involves our brain and how it processes information. It's not just about trying things randomly until something works. Our brain actively thinks and makes connections to figure out the solution.

III.             Discovering New Relationships: Insightful learning is about finding new connections between ideas or things. We notice patterns or relationships that we didn't know existed before. This helps us understand the problem better and come up with more creative solutions.

IV.            Suddenness: Insightful learning can happen suddenly and unexpectedly. It's like a lightbulb turning on in our heads. We suddenly understand the solution clearly, almost out of nowhere.

V.               Dependency on Age and Experience: Insightful learning relies on what we already know and have experienced. We need some familiarity with the problem to see the solution. The more we learn and experience, the better we become at insightful learning.

VI.            Attention to the Goal: Insightful learners stay focused on the goal of solving the problem. They don't get distracted by irrelevant information. This helps them concentrate and find the solution more effectively.

VII.         Test of Insightful Learning Through Transfer: We can test insightful learning by seeing if we can use what we've learned in one situation to solve problems in a different situation. If we can do that, it shows that we've truly understood and learned through insight.

By understanding these characteristics, we can develop our ability to learn insightfully, solve problems creatively, and apply our knowledge to new situations.

3.1.2. Experiment on chimpanzee

Kohler conducted experiments on different animals like chimpanzees, pigeons, chickens, and humans to understand how they acquire insights. The experiments conducted on chimpanzees in the Denerif Forest of Africa from 1913 to 1917 are especially important in this regard.

The following two experiments conducted in a chimpanzee named Sultan, are discussed below:

Experiment on box problem

Kohler placed a hungry chimpanzee named Sultan in a locked room. The chimpanzee became restless, making noises and jumping around. Meanwhile, he noticed a banana hanging from the ceiling. Excited to eat the banana, he made several attempts but couldn't reach it. Eventually, he calmed down and observed some scattered boxes in the room. Moving around, he accidentally stepped on a box and realized he had become slightly taller and closer to the banana. Understanding the relationship between the boxes and the banana's distance, he fetched another box and stacked it on top. Climbing the boxes, he progressively got closer to the banana. In the end, he successfully arranged all the boxes and reached the top to enjoy the banana.

Experiment on stick problem

In this experiment, a hungry chimpanzee was confined to a room with scattered sticks. A banana was placed outside the room where the chimpanzee's hands couldn't reach. The chimpanzee made several attempts to grab the banana but failed. Inside the room, the chimpanzee noticed the scattered sticks and started playing with them. Eventually, the chimpanzee attempted to use a stick to pull the banana towards him, but it didn't work. After some time, the chimpanzee figured out that the sticks could be connected together. By joining the sticks, the chimpanzee managed to create a tool long enough to retrieve the banana. This experiment demonstrated that seemingly impossible tasks can be mentally solved. The solution to the problem originated from the chimpanzee's mental thinking and reasoning here can be termed as insightful learning.

 

 

4.1.3. Educational implications of Kohler's learning theory

Insight-based learning denies trial and error in learning. It fosters meaningful and transformative experiences. It can be applied to subjects like math, social studies, geography, and history. The educational implications of this theory can be stated as follows:

a.     Goal setting: Setting goals is an important implication of insightful learning. It helps learners focus their efforts and gives them direction. Goals provide motivation, guide learning activities, and allow learners to track their progress.

b.     Emphasis in problem solving method: Another important implication of insight-based learning is the use of problem-solving methods in teaching. It contributes to the development of insight in learners. However, when presenting a problem, it is important to create balance of learner's readiness, motivation, nature of the subject matter and learning environment.

c.      Presentation of the whole problem:

Insight-based learning focuses on observing things as a whole to learn. If learners only see the things in individual parts without understanding how they fit together, they may struggle to solve problems. That's why it's important to approach learning using the Whole-to-Part method, where learners understand the bigger picture before focusing on the details.

d.     Support for self-paced learning:

Insights learning suggest that, to help learners progress effectively, it's important to match the pace of the learning process with their readiness. They should be given enough chances to actively participate in learning and tackle challenges independently. This allows them to constantly improve their skills. Applying unnecessary pressure can have a negative effect on learning and may lead to frustration.

e.      Importance on cognitive and emotional readiness:

The theory of insight-based learning emphasizes the importance of matching the learner's cognitive and emotional readiness with the advancement of the learning process. Cognitive readiness refers to understanding the proposed subject matter through knowledge acquisition, generalization, reasoning, and critical thinking. Emotional readiness, on the other hand, refers to understanding the learner's mindset towards the learning material or environment. If the learner is not cognitively ready, they may not be able to learn effectively, even if they engage in mental activities. Similarly, if the learner is not emotionally ready, they may not be receptive to the proposed learning content. Therefore, in order to bring about effectiveness in learning, it is important to consider the learner's readiness.

f.       Sufficient help for ensuring success:

In order to achieve success in learning, insight-based learning theories suggest providing sufficient guidance, suggestions, and encouragement. Specifically, it is recommended to offer support to students in identifying problems, exploring possible solutions, and organizing obtained solutions. However, it is important to note that providing assistance does not mean providing the solution to the problem itself.

 

 

4.2. Information Processing Theory

4.2.1 Introduction

The information processing theory of learning is a cognitive theory that explains how people receive, store, and process information. It is based on the idea that the human mind works like a computer, with input, processing, and output stages. It suggests that learning involves several stages, including reception, perception, short-term memory, long-term memory, and retrieval. This theory has been used to explain various learning phenomena, such as acquiring new information, remembering, problem-solving, and decision-making.

What is learning according to information processing theory?

Learning is a complex mental/ cognitive process that involves the acquisition of new information and the modification of existing knowledge.

The information processing theory of learning has been criticized for being too simplistic and for failing to take into account the social and emotional aspects of learning. However, it remains a popular and influential theory of learning. It has been used to explain a wide range of learning phenomena, and it has been used to develop a variety of instructional strategies. The theory is still under development, but it has become one of the most influential theories of learning in psychology.

4.2.2. Key Features of Information Processing Theory

The key features of the information processing theory of learning are:

·        Information is processed in stages: Information is first received through the senses, then stored in short-term memory, and finally transferred to long-term memory.

·        Information is processed by a series of mental processes: These mental processes include attention, perception, memory, and thinking.

·        Learning is influenced by a variety of factors: These factors include prior knowledge, motivation, and the environment.

 

4.2.3.  Basic Elements of Information Processing Theory: (Sensory register, short-term memory/store, long-term memory/store)

Information Processing Theory is a cognitive framework that explains how information is perceived, processed, stored, and retrieved by the human mind. It involves three key elements:

·        Sensory Register: This is the initial stage of information processing where sensory information from the environment is briefly registered and retained after the original stimulus has ceased.  It consists of different types of sensory memory, including iconic memory for visual information lasting approximately half a second, echoic memory for auditory information lasting 3 to 4 seconds, and haptic memory for touch lasting two seconds. While the storage capacity of the sensory register is unlimited, the duration of storage is very short due to the decay of information over time.

·        Short-Term Memory/Store: It is also called working memory where information goes after it gets attention from the sensory register. It can hold a small amount of information for a short time, usually about 30 seconds. Think of it as a mental notepad that can only hold around 7±2 items.  Distractions, complexity, and similarity of information can make it harder to remember things in this stage.

·        Long-term Memory/Store: Long-term memory is the final stage of information processing, where information is stored for longer periods, ranging from days to a lifetime. It has an unlimited capacity and can hold a vast amount of knowledge, experiences, skills, and memories. Long-term memory is organized into different categories, such as factual knowledge (semantic memory), personal experiences (episodic memory), and procedural skills (procedural memory). Retrieval of information from long-term memory is crucial for learning, remembering, and applying knowledge.

 

 

4.2.2. Educational implications of information processing theory

Information processing theory is a cognitive theory of learning that views the mind as an information processing system. This theory has a number of implications for teaching and learning, which are as follows:

·        Organize the curriculum in a repetitive sequence that builds on prior knowledge, facilitating the transfer of information to long-term memory and supporting knowledge construction.

·        Procedural knowledge, involving skills and processes, requires more emphasis and practice than declarative knowledge, which focuses on factual information.

·        Attention, rehearsal, and overlearning are essential for effective learning, ensuring the allocation of cognitive resources, maintenance of information in working memory, and enhanced durability of learned material.

·        Visual aids and mnemonic devices can help students remember information by creating mental connections and associations.

·        Break down complex tasks into manageable steps that allows students to comprehend and master each component before progressing further.

·        Focus on motivation, prior knowledge, scaffolding for struggling students, and assessment for monitoring learning progress.

·        Provide opportunities for students to practice and apply new skills in various contexts to promote transfer and application of knowledge.

·        Give timely and constructive feedback to guide students' learning and enable them to make adjustments and improvements.

·        Create a positive and supportive learning environment that fosters engagement, motivation, and a sense of belonging, contributing to effective learning.

 

Unit 4: Constructivism (8)

4.1 Introduction to Constructivism

Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the active role of learners in constructing their knowledge. Rather than passively receiving information from teachers, learners engage in active interaction with the world and reflect on their experiences to build their understanding. According to constructivism “learning is an active process of constructing knowledge and understanding, not a passive reception of information.”

This perspective challenges the traditional notion of knowledge transmission and portrays learning as a dynamic and ongoing process. Learners are seen as active participants who make sense of the world around them, constantly refining and revising their knowledge through their interactions and reflections. Immanuel Kant, John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, Edgar Morin, and Maria Montessori are considered among the primary proponents of constructivism.

Some definitions of constructivism given by different scholars are as follows:

According to Jean Piaget, "Constructivism is the view that knowledge is not passively received, but actively built up by the cognizing subject" (Piaget, 1954, p. 10).

According to Lev Vygotsky, "The child's mind is not a passive receptacle into which knowledge is poured. Rather, the child actively constructs knowledge through social interaction and experience" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

In the opinion of John Dewey, "Learning is not the acquisition of something foreign to the learner, but rather a reorganization of the learner's existing experience" (Dewey, 1938, p. 35).

According to Jerome Bruner, "Learning is an active process of construing meaning from experience" (Bruner, 1966, p. 72).

David Ausubel opine that "Learning is most effective when new information is related to existing knowledge" (Ausubel, 1968, p. 12).

These definitions all share the common idea that knowledge is not something that is simply transmitted from teacher to student, but rather something that is actively constructed by the learner. The learner's prior knowledge, experiences, and interactions with the world all play a role in how they construct knowledge.

Constructivism has had a significant impact on education, and many educational practices are now based on constructivist principles. For example, constructivist teachers often use hands-on activities, problem-based learning, and cooperative learning to help their students construct knowledge.

The philosophy related to constructivism can be further studied under following two headings:

4.2 Individual constructivism (Piagetian constructivism)

4.2.1 Introduction

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist and philosopher. He was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on August 9, 1896. He made significant contributions to the fields of psychology, education, and philosophy. Piaget worked as a professor at the University of Geneva from 1925 until his death. During his career, he developed a theory of cognitive development known as "Genetic Epistemology." He obtained a Ph.D. in natural science from the University of Neuchatel and also studied briefly at the University of Zürich. Piaget died on September 16, 1980, at the age of 84.

Piaget’s individual constructivism is also referred to as personal constructivism, cognitive constructivism, or cognitive individualism. It is a learning theory that highlights the personal and subjective nature of learning. The theory acknowledges that learners bring their prior knowledge and experiences into the learning process, shaping their understanding. There is the connection between a person's learning and their stage of maturation. There are four stages of cognitive development, each accompanied by specific learning processes. The theory suggests that learning follows a sequential pattern, with individuals gradually progressing through these stages as they interact with their environment. These stages and processes provide a framework for understanding how individuals construct knowledge and develop cognitively.

4.2.2 Stages of Cognitive development

The stages of cognitive development stated by Jean Piaget are:

·        Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years): Babies learn about the world through their senses and motor skills. They explore objects by touching, tasting, and seeing them. They also learn about cause and effect, such as how dropping a toy makes a noise.

·        Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years): Children develop the ability to use symbols, such as words and images, to represent objects and ideas. They also become more logical in their thinking, but they still have difficulty understanding concepts such as conservation (the idea that the amount of something stays the same even if its appearance changes).

·        Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years): Children become better at understanding and manipulating concrete objects. They can also solve problems using logic and reasoning. However, they still have difficulty thinking about abstract concepts.

·        Formal operational stage (11 years to adulthood): Adolescents and adults develop the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. They can also think about future possibilities and make plans.

 

4.2.3 Basic principle of knowledge construction (Scheme, adaptation,  assimilation and accommodation, equilibrium)

According to Piaget, knowledge construction is an ongoing process that goes throughout our lives as we continue to learn and experience new things. They actively construct their own understanding of the world through following principles and processes:

a. Schema

A schema is a mental representation of the world. It helps us understand and interact with our environment. Schemas are cognitive structures that organize our knowledge and experiences. They can be specific, such as our schema for a dog, or more general, such as our schema for animals.

For example, our schema for a dog might include information such as:

·        Dogs have four legs.

·        Dogs have fur.

·        Dogs bark.

·        Dogs wag their tails.

·        Dogs are friendly animals etc.

This schema allows us to make sense of new information about dogs. For example, if we see a dog for the first time, we can use our schema to identify it as a dog. We can also use our schema to predict what the dog might do next. For example, we might predict that the dog will bark or wag its tail.

b.     Adaptation is a fundamental principle  in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It refers to the process by which individuals adjust their cognitive structures to interact effectively with their environment. It involves the interplay of assimilation and accommodation.  Assimilation integrates new information into existing schemas, while accommodation modifies or creates new schemas when new experiences cannot be easily assimilated.

 

·        Assimilation

Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information into an existing schema. When we encounter new information that is similar to something we already know, we can assimilate it into our existing schema. For example, if we see a dog that is a different breed than we have seen before, we can assimilate it into our schema for dogs by adding the new information about its breed.

In this example, we are not changing our schema for dogs to fit the new information. We are simply adding the new information to our existing schema. This is an example of assimilation.

·        Accommodation

Accommodation is the process of changing an existing schema to fit new information. When we encounter new information that is very different from something we already know, we may need to accommodate our schema. For example, if we see a dog that is walking on its hind legs, we might need to accommodate our schema for dogs to fit this new information.

In this example, we are changing our schema for dogs to fit the new information. We are adding the new information to our schema, but we are also changing our schema in other ways. This is an example of accommodation.

In a classroom setting, a teacher might introduce a new concept to students. If the concept is familiar to the students, they will be able to assimilate it into their existing schemas. However, if the concept is new, the students may need to accommodate their schemas to fit the new information. The teacher can help students through this process by providing scaffolding and support.

c.      Equilibrium

Equilibrium is a state of cognitive balance where individuals' existing schemas align with their experiences and the demands of the environment. It is achieved through a process of assimilation, where new information is integrated into existing schemas, and accommodation, where schemas are modified to fit new information. When new experiences fit existing schemas, equilibrium is achieved. However, when there is a mismatch between new experiences and existing schemas, disequilibrium occurs. This can lead to accommodation, which is the process of modifying schemas to fit new information. Accommodation can lead to a new state of equilibrium, which is a more complex and accurate understanding of the world.

Here is an example of equilibrium:

A child has a schema for animals that includes the features of "has four legs" and "has fur". When the child sees a dog for the first time, they can assimilate this new information into their schema by adding the feature of "barks". This does not require any major changes to the child's schema, so equilibrium is achieved.

 

4.2.4 Classroom implications of Cognitive Constructivism

The educational/ classroom implications based on Piaget's theories can be summarized as follows:

·        Learning should focus on a discovery approach, where students actively explore and discover knowledge themselves.

·        The curriculum should be tailored to the developmental level of each child, providing educational experiences that are appropriate for their stage of development.

·        Social interactions are highly valuable for learning according to Piaget, so positive social actions should be promoted in the classroom.

·        The use of simple to complex and project-based teaching methods can enhance learning outcomes.

·        Classroom activities should be designed to support and encourage self-learning, allowing students to take ownership of their education.

·        Instruction should be adjusted to match the child's level of understanding, adapting as the child progresses through different stages of development.

·        Co-curricular activities hold equal importance to the formal curriculum in fostering cognitive development in children.

·        The major goals of education, as advocated by Piaget, include nurturing critical and creative thinking skills in students etc.

 

4.3 Social constructivism (Vygotskian constructivism

4.3.1 Introduction

Lev Vygotsky was a renowned Russian psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of developmental psychology. He was born on November 17, 1896, and is best known for his work on sociocultural theory and the role of culture in human development. Vygotsky died at the age of 37 from tuberculosis. His work was not widely known outside of the Soviet Union until the 1960s, but it has since become one of the most influential theories in psychology. Vygotsky's ideas continue to shape our understanding of how individuals acquire knowledge and skills.

According to social constructivism, knowledge is not simply acquired by individuals through direct observation or independent thinking, but rather through active engagement with the social environment. It has seen learning as a collaborative process, where individuals actively participate in shared activities and dialogues. Through these interactions, individuals not only acquire new knowledge but also internalize the social and cultural practices of their community.

Social constructivism highlights the importance of cultural influences on cognitive development. Different cultures provide unique frameworks of knowledge, values, and beliefs that shapes individuals' understanding of the world. Vygotsky referred to this process as cultural mediation, where individuals internalize cultural tools and symbols through their interactions with others.

4.3.2 Vygotsky's Theories of Learning

Vygotsky’s theories of learning are often summarized using the acronym VKHLTSOC, which stands for:

a.     Theory of value

Vygotsky believed that the goal of education is to promote the development of children through social learning. This means that children learn by interacting with others and by internalizing the cultural values and practices of their society.

b.     Theory of knowledge

Vygotsky believed that knowledge is not something that is innate, but rather something that is constructed through social interaction. Children learn by observing and interacting with adults and more experienced peers. They also use language as a tool for thinking and problem-solving.

c.      Theory of human nature

Vygotsky believed that human nature is not static, but rather is constantly evolving in response to social and historical factors. He argued that children are not simply passive recipients of knowledge, but rather are active participants in their own learning.

d.     Theory of learning

Vygotsky believed that learning is a process of transformation. Children do not simply acquire new information, but rather they change the way they think and understand the world. This transformation is facilitated by social interaction and language.

e.      Theory of transmission

Vygotsky believed that learning is not simply a matter of transmitting information from one person to another. Rather, it is a process of active participation and construction. The teacher's role is to provide scaffolding, or support, to help students learn new concepts and skills.

f.       Theory of society

Vygotsky believed that society plays a central role in learning. The cultural tools and practices of a society provide learners with the resources they need to learn, and the social interactions that take place in a society provide learners with the support they need to make sense of new information.

g.     Theory of opportunity

Learning takes place within the social environment. Since no individual is able to escape their social surroundings, all within a society are unknowingly being educated. This means that everyone has the opportunity to learn, regardless of their background or socioeconomic status.

h.     Theory of consensus

Learning takes place as a process of consensus between the teachers and students. It is a collaborative process of construction of knowledge. This means that teachers and students work together to create a shared understanding of the world.

 

4.3.3 Basic principle of knowledge construction: inter-psychological process and intra-psychological process; MKO, ZPD and scaffolding

Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development aka social constructivism emphasizes the importance of social interaction and culture in the development of knowledge and higher-order thinking skills. He argued that learning occurs through a process of inter-psychological (social) interaction, which is then internalized and becomes intra-psychological (mental).

a.     MKO: MKO stands for More Knowledgeable Other. In the context of educational psychology, the MKO refers to someone who has a higher level of knowledge or expertise in a particular domain compared to the learner. The MKO can be a teacher, tutor, parent, peer, or even a computer program. The role of the MKO is to provide guidance, support, and instruction to the learner in order to facilitate their learning and understanding of a specific task or concept. The presence of an MKO is crucial in the process of knowledge construction as they help bridge the gap between the learner's current abilities and their potential for further development.

b.     ZPD: ZPD stands for Zone of Proximal Development. It is a concept introduced by Lev Vygotsky to describe the range of tasks that a learner can accomplish with the assistance of an MKO. The ZPD encompasses the area between what a learner can do independently (their actual developmental level) and what they can achieve with guidance (their potential developmental level). It represents the zone in which learning and cognitive growth take place. The ZPD is not a fixed or static range but varies for each learner and can be expanded through appropriate instruction and support. It emphasizes the importance of providing learners with tasks that are challenging but within their reach with the help of an MKO.

c.      Scaffolding: Scaffolding is a teaching technique that operates within the ZPD. It involves providing temporary support and structure to learners as they engage in learning activities. The scaffolded support is gradually adjusted or removed as learners gain competence and become more independent. The role of scaffolding is to facilitate the learner's understanding and skill development by breaking down complex tasks into smaller, more manageable steps, providing prompts, modeling, and offering feedback. Scaffolding helps learners build their confidence and competence, allowing them to eventually perform tasks on their own. It is a dynamic process that promotes active learning and allows learners to take on increasing levels of responsibility for their own learning.

 

Here are some examples how MKO, ZPD, and scaffolding can be used in relation to Vygotsky's theory:

·        A teacher is working with a group of students on a math problem. One student is struggling to understand the concept. The teacher can act as the MKO and provide the student with scaffolding by giving them hints and prompts. The teacher can also break the problem down into smaller steps that the student can more easily understand. As the student becomes more proficient, the teacher can gradually withdraw the scaffolding until the student is able to solve the problem independently. In this example, the teacher is acting as the MKO and providing scaffolding to the student in their ZPD. The scaffolding helps the student to learn the new concept and eventually solve the problem independently.

 

·        A peer is tutoring another peer on a science concept. The tutor acts as the MKO and provides the tutee with scaffolding by explaining the concept in different ways and providing examples. The tutor can also ask the tutee questions to help them think about the concept in different ways. As the tutee becomes more proficient, the tutor can gradually withdraw the scaffolding until the tutee is able to explain the concept independently. In this example, the peer is acting as the MKO and providing scaffolding to the tutee in their ZPD. The scaffolding helps the tutee to learn the new concept and eventually explain it independently.

 

·        A parent is helping their child with a reading assignment. The parent acts as the MKO and provides the child with scaffolding by asking questions, providing prompts, and helping the child sound out words. As the child becomes more proficient, the parent can gradually withdraw the scaffolding until the child is able to read the assignment independently. In this example, the parent is acting as the MKO and providing scaffolding to the child in their ZPD. The scaffolding helps the child to learn the new concept and eventually read the assignment independently.

 

4.3.4 Classroom implications

 The classroom implications of social constructivism can be started as follows:

·        The cultural background of learners should be considered for effective teaching and learning in the classroom. The teaching-learning process should be conducted as a social interaction process.

·        The role of cultural tools, such as culture-specific language, codes, symbols, logic, and mathematics, should be recognized in students' learning to make the learning process culture-specific.

·        Educationists should be aware of the cultural tools that can be highly useful for instruction in a multicultural society.

·        Policies should be developed that support and cater to the needs of cultural minorities.

·        A model for individualized instruction should be implemented to address the unique learning requirements of each student.

·        Learning should be seen as a collaborative process, emphasizing the importance of interaction and collaboration among students and between teachers and students.

·        Teachers should provide support to students based on the theory of the zone of proximal development, identifying and assisting them in areas where they need guidance and help.

·        The learning process should be viewed as an interaction between a knowledgeable person, such as a teacher, and the learner.

·        Teachers should take on the role of facilitators and guides, promoting an active learning process or "learning by doing."

·        Teaching should be approached as a process of scaffolding, where teachers provide the necessary support and guidance to students for the construction of new knowledge and skills. The level of support should be tailored to the individual needs of students etc.

 

The End

 

Some model questions for practice

     UNIT  ONE

Subjective questions

1.     What is learning? How does it occur?

2.     Write the meaning and definitions of learning.

3.     Describe the concept of learning from psychological point of view.

4.     Give the examples of exception of learning.

5.     What is the literal meaning of the word "psychology" and how is it defined in modern times?

6.     When and where was the first psychology laboratory founded?

7.     What are the characteristics of learning? Explain each characteristic.

8.     How does learning influence our thoughts, language, motivations, emotions, personalities, and attitudes?

9.     What are the different means through which learning can occur?

10.         Explain the concept of lifelong learning and its importance.

11.         What are the philosophical foundations of learning theories? Describe empiricism and behaviourism.

12.         What are the key features of empiricism and behaviourism?

13.         How does behaviourism view human behaviour and learning?

14.         How does behaviourism explain the relationship between stimuli and responses?

15.         What is the relationship between behaviourism and empiricism?

16.         What is cognition? How do cognitive theories explain learning as?

17.         Elucidate the similarities and differences between Cognitivism and rationalism.

 

Objective questions

 

1. Which of the following is a learned behaviour?

 

a.     Fish swimming in water

b.      Birds making the nest

c.       Child recognizing his/her mother

d.     Contracting iris for bright light

 

2.     Learning is......

a.     Change in knowledge

b.     Change in attitude

c.      Change in skill

d.    Change in behaviour

 

3.     Which of the following is not an exception of learning?

a.     Reflex

b.     Maturation

c.      Instincts

d.    Guided response

 

4.     Which of the following is an example of instinctive behaviour of an animal?

a.     Production of saliva for food

b.     Dog wagging tail for master

c.      Spiders making web

d.     Birds laying eggs

 

5.     Which of the following exemplifies a learned behaviour?

 

a. A bird flying

 

b. A man swimming

 

c. A child sucking thing

 

d. A bee making hive

 

6.     Learning is modification and permanent change in behaviour is known as....

 

a.     process of learning

b.    Characteristic of learning

c.      factor of leaning

d.     the view of learning

 

7.     Which of the following is not an exception of learning?

a.     Native responses

b.     Reflexes

c.      Temporary states of organism

d.    Readiness

 

 

8.     Which of the following is not associated with a learning process?

 

a. Goal direction

b. Motivation

c. Readiness

d. Reflexes

 

9.     Which of the following is not a nature of learning?

 

a.     It is a motivational system

b.     It is a cognitive system

c.      It is an attitudinal system

d.    It is an automatic system

 

10.             Who has defined "Learning may be considered as a change in insights, behavior, perception, motivation or a combination of these ?

a.     M.L Bigge

b.     H.R. Bhatia

c.      Crow and Crow

d.     Hillgard

 

11.            Who are behaviour association learning theorists?

 

a. Bandura and Walter

b. Kohler and Kafka

c. Watson and Pavlov

d. Wertheimer and Brunner

 

12.            Which is not a step of learning

    a. Goal

    b. Motivation

       c. Reflexes

       d. Generalization

12. Which one is the product of learning?

 

a. Attitudes

 

b. Maturation

 

c. Heredity

 

d. Native responses

 

13.            Which of the following is not S-R theory of learning?

 

a. Lewin's field theory

 

b. Pavlov's learning theory

 

c. Skinner's theory of learning

d. Thorndike's learning theory

 

14.            Which of the following is not a nature of learning?

 

a.     Goal oriented

b.     Motivational system

c.      Reflexes

d.     Self-system

 

15.            Which of the following is a native tendency?

 

a. Blinking of the eye

 

b. Making the nests

 

c. Respiratory system

d. High quality insight

16.  Which of the following is the acquired/learned behaviour?

a. Making the nest by bird

b. Identifying mother by child

c. Swimming in water by fish

d. Contracting iris in brightness

 

Which factor is more affected by heredity?

 

a. Instructional factors

 

b. Cultural factors

 

c. Psychological factors

 

d. Physiological factor

 

16. Cognitive theories of learning emphasize on the role of...

 

a. sensation

 

b. experiences

 

c. perception

 

d. imitation

 

17. The ability to predict the consequence of a particular behavior in a novel situation is...

 

a. transfer

 

b. generalization

 

c. memory

 

d. learning

18. Which of the following is an example of aversive punishment?

 

a. Ceasing to give pocket money for mischievous behavior

 

b. Beating the dog when it hits from master's plate

 

c. Giving warming for undisciplined behaviour

d. Letting the student stand-up on the bench for not doing homework

20. Which philosopher is considered the father of modern empiricism?

a. John Locke

 b. Francis Bacon

c. René Descartes

d. Plato

 

21. According to empiricism, where does all knowledge come from?

a. Reason and intuition

 b. Sensory experience

 c. Innate ideas

d. Environmental factors

22. Which characteristic feature of empiricism involves developing simple ideas through sensory data?

 a. Sensationalism

b. Reductionism

c. Associationism

d. Mechanism

 

23. Who is credited with the development of behaviourism?

 a. John B. Watson

 b. John Locke

c. Francis Bacon

d. René Descartes

 

24. What does behaviourism emphasize in understanding human learning and behaviour?

 a. Internal mental processes

b. Personal responsibility

c. Observable behavior

d. Free will and choice

 

25. According to behaviourism, what shapes human behaviour?

a. Internal physiological events

 b. Conditioning and environmental factors

c. Mental processes

d. Introspection and self-reflection

 

26. Which characteristic of behaviorism involves predicting and controlling human behavior?

a. Naturalistic and objective view

 b. Lack of responsibility for actions

 c. Manipulative approach

d. Sensory input as the gateway to knowledge

 

27. What does behaviourism believe learning occurs through?

a. Association of sensory experiences

 b. Deductive reasoning and logical thinking

c. Innate knowledge and intuition

d. Internal mental processes

 

28. Who are some notable figures associated with cognitivism?

a. George Miller, Ulric Neisser, Jerome Bruner

 b. John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike

c. René Descartes, Immanuel Kant, David Hume

d. Plato, Aristotle, Socrates

 

29. What does Cognitivism focus on in understanding human behavior and learning?

a. External environmental factors

b. Observable behavior

c. Internal mental processes

d. Conditioning and reinforcement

 

 

30. Which of the following is a key feature of empiricism?

(a) It emphasizes the importance of sensory experience in shaping behavior.

(b) It views the mind as a blank slate that is molded by experience.

(c) It focuses on observable behavior and ignores mental processes.

 (d) All of the above.

 

31. Which of the following is a key feature of behaviorism?

 (a) It emphasizes the importance of observable behavior and ignores mental processes.

(b) It views the mind as a blank slate that is molded by experience.

 (c) It relies on reinforcement and punishment to shape behavior.

(d) All of the above.

 

32. Which of the following is a difference between empiricism and behaviorism?

(a) Empiricism emphasizes the role of mental processes in shaping behavior, while behaviorism focuses on observable behavior.

(b) Empiricism views the mind as a blank slate that is molded by experience, while behaviorism acknowledges the role of prior knowledge and experience in learning new information and skills.

(c) Empiricism encourages active learning, while behaviorism places the learner at the center of the learning process.

 (d) All of the above.

 

33. Which of the following is an example of a cognitive approach to learning?

(a) A teacher gives students a list of vocabulary words and tells them to memorize them.

(b) A teacher gives students a problem to solve and asks them to work together to find a solution.

(c) A teacher gives students a lecture on a particular topic.

(d) A teacher gives students a multiple-choice test on a particular topic.

 

34. Which of the following is an example of a behaviourist approach to learning?

(a) A teacher gives students a list of vocabulary words and tells them to memorize them.

(b) A teacher gives students a problem to solve and asks them to work together to find a solution.

(c) A teacher gives students a lecture on a particular topic.

(d) A teacher gives students a multiple-choice test on a particular topic.

 

35. Which of the following philosophers is considered to be the father of empiricism?

 (a) John Locke

(b) René Descartes

(c) David Hume

(d) Immanuel Kant

 

36. Which of the following psychologists is considered to be the father of behaviorism?

(a) John Locke

(b) René Descartes

(c) David Hume

(d) John B. Watson

 

37. Which of the following is an example of a classical conditioning experiment?

 (a) A dog is repeatedly presented with a bell and then food. After a while, the dog starts to salivate at the sound of the bell, even without the food being present.

(b) A rat is placed in a maze and learns to find the food at the end of the maze.

(c) A child learns to associate the word "dog" with the actual object of a dog.

(d) A student learns to solve math problems by repeatedly practicing them.

 

38. Which of the following is an example of a operant conditioning experiment?

(a) A dog is repeatedly presented with a bell and then food. After a while, the dog starts to salivate at the sound of the bell, even without the food being present.

 (b) A rat is placed in a maze and learns to find the food at the end of the maze.

(c) A child learns to associate the word "dog" with the actual object of a dog.

(d) A student learns to solve math problems by repeatedly practicing them.

 

39. Which of the following is a criticism of behaviourism?

(a) It ignores the role of mental processes in shaping behavior.

(b) It is too deterministic and does not allow for free will.

 (c) It is too focused on the present and does not take into account past experiences.

(d) All of the above

 

          Unit Two

Subjective questions

1.     Explain the basic process of classical conditioning and its importance in learning.

2.     What is the difference between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination? Provide examples to illustrate your answer.

3.     Describe the phenomenon of extinction in classical conditioning and provide an example.

4.     What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning? How does it relate to the process of extinction?

5.     Discuss the educational implications of classical conditioning. How can this theory be applied in teaching and learning?

6.     How can classical conditioning be used to develop good habits and eliminate bad habits in students?

7.     Provide an example of how classical conditioning can be used in sports teaching to enhance athletes' performance and motivation.

8.     Explain the concept of inhibition in classical conditioning and provide a real-life example.

9.     How can classical conditioning be applied in removing specific fears or phobias in individuals? Provide an example.

10.                        Discuss the role of classical conditioning in verbal learning and how it can aid in memorization and retention of new vocabulary.

11.                        Explain the concept of classical conditioning with characteristics.

12.                        Criticize or characterize classical conditioning from educational point of view.

13.                        Explain the conditions of operant-conditioning.

14.                        Compare and contrast between classical and operant conditioning theory of learning.

15.                        Describe the educational implications of operant conditioning learning with examples.

16.                        How can operant conditioning be used in self-management?

17.                        What are the potential implications and applications of operant conditioning in behavior therapy?

18.                        Present the experiment, process and specific features of operant conditioning theory of learning.

 

19.                        What role does the environment play in operant conditioning?

20.                        Explain the concept of reinforcement in operant conditioning.

21.                        Provide examples of positive reinforcement in everyday life.

22.                        Describe the process of shaping behavior in operant conditioning.

23.                        What are the key steps involved in the shaping process?

24.                        Discuss the principles of shaping behavior according to Karen Pryor.

25.                        How can operant conditioning be applied in education?

26.                        Explain the concept of negative reinforcement and provide examples.

27.                        Compare and contrast negative reinforcement and punishment.

28.                        What are the different schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning?

29.                        Give examples of each type of reinforcement schedule.

30.                        Discuss the concept of extinction in operant conditioning.

31.                        What are the main principles of Thorndike's theory of connectionism?

 

32.                        How did Thorndike conduct his experiments to study trial and error learning in animals?

 

33.                        Explain the process of trial and error learning according to Thorndike's theory.

 

34.                        What are the primary laws of learning proposed by Thorndike?

 

35.                        Describe the Law of Readiness and its associated subordinate laws.

 

36.                        How does the Law of Exercise contribute to effective learning?

 

37.                        Discuss the Law of Effect and its impact on learning.

 

38.                        How can Thorndike's theory of connectionism be applied in educational settings?

 

39.                        Describe the importance of primary laws of learning according to Thorndike.

40.                        Explain the application of law of associative shifting propounded by Thorndike.

41.                        Compare the concepts between the law of associative shifting and the law of belongingness.

42.                        Describe the main components involved in classical conditioning.

43.                        Enumerate the three basic laws of Thorndike's conditioning and explain any one of them.

44.                        Discuss the role of trial and error in skill learning.

45.                        Explain the process of learning according to trial and error theory and also describe primary laws of learning presented by Thorndike.

46.                        What are the benefits of using an integrated approach to learning?

 

47.                        Provide examples of how integrated approaches to learning can be implemented in different educational contexts.

 

48.                        Discuss the various approaches that can be used to address learning difficulties.

 

Multiple Choice Questions

1.     Behaviour shaping is the characteristic feature of...

 

a. classical conditioning

 

b. trial and error learning

 

c. operant conditioning

 

d. insightful learning

 

2.     Which is the highest form of hierarchical learning?

 

a. Classical conditioning

 

b. Operant conditioning

 

c. Multiple discrimination

 

d. Problem solving

 

3.     If a child says Bird at the sight of sparrow and pigeon, this is an example of....

 

a. signal learning

 

b. discrimination learning

 

c. generalization

 

d. principle learning

 

4.     Which of the following are not the characteristics of classical conditioning?

 

a. Stimulus generalization

 

b. Discrimination

 

c. Extinction

 

d. Reinforcement schedule

 

5.     In operant conditioning, reinforcement is provided to the learner for...

 

a. correct responses

 

b. reflections

 

c. incorrect responses

 

d. every trial

 

6.     If a child become able to call his/her classmates by their names is

 

an example of...

 

a. verbal association

 

b. conditioning

 

c. signal learning

 

d. multiple discrimination

 

 

7.     What does Skinner's induction mean?

 

a. Generalization of stimulus and response

b. Connection between stimulus and response

c. Generalization of early experiences

 

d.     Connection between response and reinforcement  

 

8.     Which of the following is not associated with a learning process?

 

a. Goal direction

 

b. Motivation

 

d.     Readiness

e.      Reflexes

 

9.     What does contiguity signify?

 

a. Simultaneous presentation of CS and UCS

 

b. Interval presentation of CS and UCS

 

c. The process of stimulus inhibition d. The process of external inhibition

 

10. In which of the following learning reinforcement occurs in every trial?

 

a. Classical conditioning

 

b. Operant conditioning

 

c. Insightful learning

 

d. S.R learning

 

11. Which of the following is associated with the concept of the law of belongingness?

 

a. Meaningfulness of understanding

b. Satisfaction

 

c. Drilling process

 

d. Action tendency

 

 12. Which of the following is not the stimulus response theory of learning?

 

a.     Kohler's Insightful theory of learning

 

b.      Pavlov’s conditioning theory of learning

 

c. Skinner's conditioning theory of learning

 

d. Thorndike's trial and error theory of learning