BICTE Second Semester Developmental Psychology Complete Note

 

Unit One

Human Growth and Development

 

1.1 Concept of Human Growth and Development

Among the various fields of psychology, developmental psychology is one which studies human growth and development as well as its principles or characteristics and its purpose and rationale. Its main function is to study the physical and mental processes and the changes that occur in the period from birth to death in a systematic and scientific manner.

Some psychologists interpret human development and growth synonymously. However, in terms of meaning, these two concepts are different. Human growth is the quantitative change that occurs in a person.  In the word of Crow and Crow, “growth refers to structural and physiological changes.” The changes such as the changes in the physical structure, size, shape, weight, height and volume of a person are growth.  Growth can be clearly observed, measured and weighed.  Growth starts from conception. It runs only for a certain period of time. It refers to maturity. It is the foundation of development that is influenced and directed by heredity. Development is not possible without growth.

On the contrary, development is a broad and comprehensive concept that includes both quantitative and qualitative aspects. It implies the change and improvement of all aspects of physical, mental, emotional, intellectual, social, moral etc. In the opinion of Hurlock, “the term development means a progressive series of orderly and coherent changes.” Growth, maturation, experience and learning are all the basis of development and are included under development.  It is an ongoing process. It cannot be measured easily but can be estimated based on behavioral observations.  It is influenced and directed by both heredity and environment.

Growth and development are integral parts of human life that are interrelated. Development is not possible without growth.  Growth is the basis of development.  Growth lays the foundation for development and development also provides necessary support for growth. Although these two terms have different meanings, they also have some similarities.

Similarities between growth and development

The similarities between human growth and development can be noted as follows:

§  Both indicate change

§  Both are interdependent and interrelated

§  Both are complementary to each other’

§  Both are observable and measurable

§  Both indicate and demonstrate maturity

§  Both start with human life

§  Both show new features

§  Both are determined by heredity and environment etc.

 

 

Difference between growth and development

 

Growth	Development
Growth is quantitative change.	Development is both quantitative and qualitative change.
Growth is only related to physical aspects.	Development covers total aspects such as physical, mental, emotional, and social changes.
The changes such as size, shape, weight, height, and volume are examples of growth.	Development is a positive change in human behavior and activities.
Growth is associated with physical maturation which occurs automatically.	Development is influenced by learning, experience, and environment.

 

1.2 Determinants of Human Growth and Development

Human growth and development are influenced by a variety of factors. Such factors are called determinants of human growth and development. Various psychological studies have shown that human growth and development is mainly determined by genetics and environment. Some psychologists also divide them into two types, external and internal. In general, these can be stated as follows:

a.     Heredity: Traits that are passed from parents to offspring are called heredity. According to Crow and Crow "heredity is biological qualities which are acquired by offspring through their parents." These qualities are passed on through the genes on the chromosomes during conception. They play an important role in  growth and development that take place later in the life of the child. The height, weight, colour of the eyes and the skin, the characteristics of the hair, physical structure, nervous system and other things related to one's constitutional make-up, body chemistry and physical development are highly decided by heredity factors. Growth and development are affected by whether genetic elements are good or bad. For example, if a child has a disorder in his nervous system, his physical and cognitive growth and development will be affected. Likewise, when there is a defect in the genetics, the normal physical growth and development of the child will be affected, as a result, other aspects such as mental, emotional and social growth and development are also affected. Such children suffer from inferiority complex and adjustment problems are seen in them.

The influence of heredity is generally observed in the following aspects of a person’s growth and development:

§  Physical appearance

§  Racial supremacy

§  vocational traits

§  Social status

§  Personality

§   Intelligence etc.

b.    Glandular secretion: Endocrine or ductless glands present in the body play an important role in human growth and development. Each of these glands secrets special juices called hormones. The abnormal activity of any one gland affects the activity of other parts of the body and glands. They influence the functions of the body system, emotional actions and even thoughts and excise a great influence on physical, social, mental, emotional and moral aspects of a person's growth and development. For example: the abnormal condition of the secretion of pituitary gland affects the height of children.  Due to this, the children, who are supposed to achieve the height, do not reach the height and end up stunted. Children who are much shorter than the average height of their age group find it difficult to participate in various group activities, and children often feel helpless.  In the same way, due to the abnormal activity of sex glands or gonads, appropriate physical characteristics do not develop according to gender, such as: boys do not grow mustache, voice like a girl, lack of masculinity, etc., while the physical characteristics of boys appear in girls.

c.     Intelligence: Intelligence, as the ability to learn, adjust and take right decision at right time, has a significant role in the overall growth and development of a child. It affects his social behavior, moral judgement and emotional growth. An intelligent person is said to exercise reasonable control over his emotions, and is found to carry on well with his personal and social adjustment. Thus, the physical, social, emotional, moral and language development of a child is greatly influenced and controlled by the level of his intelligence. We cannot expect problem-solving behavior, creative, imaginative and inventive ability from a child having subnormal intelligence.

d.    Environment: Environment plays a role in human growth and  development as much as heredity. Environment refers to all those things, except genes, which stimulate and influence a person. According Woodworth, “environment covers all the outside factors that have acted on the individual since he begins life.” Just as the seed (heredity) is not enough for a plant to be good, the soil (environment) must also be good, in the same way, for the proper growth and development of a human being, it is not enough that the genetic quality is good, the environment in which he lives must also be good.  Even if person comes from a good lineage, s/he cannot progress if s/he does not get a suitable environment. There is nothing good or bad when a child is born.  Environment makes him good or bad. The environment shapes the innate qualities or traits that children inherit from their ancestors.  If the environmental elements are not good, no matter how good the child may be with hereditary qualities, there will be no proper development and growth. In a bad and unfavourable environment, the child cannot develop his personality properly.

 

The physical, social, cultural, intellectual and emotional environment surrounding a person has a lot of influence on growth and development of a person. The influence of the environment starts from conception. The environment of the child in the womb, his upbringing, family love, education, social and economic status of the family, lifestyle, tradition, friends and other favorable and unfavorable conditions determine the growth and development of the individual.

e.     The quality of physical environment medical care and nourishment: A child's growth and development is greatly influenced by the quality of his physical environment and medical care and nourishment available to him for his living and working. These include open space, balanced diet, good living and working conditions and proper medical care. He will achieve the heights of his growth and development based on the proper availability of these things.

1.3 Need for Studying Human Growth and Development

Along with human growth and development, various changes take place which bring about differences in the individual's wants, needs, interests and abilities. Its study provides information on why and how changes occur at different developmental stages of human life and how they influence behavior. Therefore, it is necessary and important for every parent, teacher, administrator, planner, researcher, manager etc. to have knowledge about human growth and development. On this basis, the need and importance of the study of human growth and development can be traced out in the following points:

       i.            Classes can be managed based on the interests, needs and abilities of the children

    ii.            A relevant curriculum, text books and materials can be developed to suit the development characteristics of children

 iii.            Teaching methods and activities can be determined based on the individual differences that appear

 iv.            It is helpful in providing the necessary guidance and counselling to children

    v.            Feedback and motivation can be provided as needed

 vi.            Based on the level, ability, maturity etc. of the children, they can be divided into groups and the necessary plans and actions can be developed for the improvement of learning.

vii.             Parents can ensure the necessary atmosphere and design caring activities according to the child's developmental pattern

viii.            It helps to improve the quality and effectiveness of teaching and learning.

 ix.            Different types of educational and vocational plans can be created

    x.            Special programs and remedial actions can be designed and executed on the basis of development characteristics etc.

1.4 Major Methods of Studying Human Growth and Development

The study of human growth and development is a broad and complex task.  In order to analyse the various activities that appear at every stage and to present scientifically recognized bases, only one study method may not be sufficient. The study of human development was started by J. A. Comenius in the seventeenth century.  Hall and Clark initiated the study of child development.  Hence, Hall is also called the father of Child Studies movement.

 In the beginning, psychologists used laboratory methods to study human development, but when studying a sensitive animal in a controlled environment of a laboratory, his activities could not be spontaneous and natural, so the facts obtained from such studies lacked credibility. Then other methods such as introspective method, retrospective method, genetic study, case study, sequential approach, etc. were introduced. Among the main methods specified in our curriculum, we will  discuss the following:

a.     Longitudinal method,

b.    Cross sectional method and

c.      Case study

 

a.     Longitudinal method: The method of studying a child or children of the same age group over a long period of time is called longitudinal method.  In this method, the changes, interests and behavior of each child at different ages are studied sequentially.  In this way, the difference in time and environment is generalized by studying the changes in children's physical, intellectual, emotional, moral, educational, social, etc. aspects. Usually, a few sample children are selected from a large population of children from infancy to adolescence, and the various aspects of development that appear at different developmental stages of the sampled children are continuously studied over the years.  During the study, information about their physical, mental, intellectual, social, emotional, functional and linguistic development is obtained and the changes in them are assessed along with the increase in age. Based on this, other children's activities and behavior are interpreted.

 

The longitudinal method was started by psychologists Allan A Stone and Willard Coslan.  Then, Jean Piaget discovered the cognitive development process using this method. Many psychologists have used this method during developmental behavior studies.  The famous evolutionary psychologist Hurlock divided the longitudinal method into two parts:

I.                  Trait oriented technique: In this, one or two developmental aspects of child development are studied over a short period of time. Piaget studied his daughter Jacqueline's hand-eye coordination for only 4 months.

II.               Life outcome-oriented technique: It involves studying various developmental aspects of a sample of children over a long period of time and generalizing the results. It is also called extended case study. Using this technique, psychologist Barkley studied the growth and development of 61 infants over 40 years from 1928 to 1968, while psychologist Buffon studied the height of one child for 17 years.

Advantages / merits

The advantages of longitudinal method include:

§  The findings are valid and reliable

§  A child's gradual growth, development status and cumulative records can be obtained

§  The influence of culture and environment on development can be studied

§  Based on the facts obtained from the study of one child, the behavior of many can be explained and predicted

§  Quantitative and qualitative information can be obtained

§  All aspects of growth and development can be studied

§  It is possible to know which behavior is permanent or changing

§  An opportunity for procedural analysis of the relationship between maturity and experience is gained etc.

 

Disadvantages / demerits

This method has following weaknesses:

§  It is expensive in terms of time, resources and means

§  Selecting an appropriate sample is difficult and the sample children may not be representative

§  Sampled children's personal health, non-cooperation, migration of parents etc. may cause problems

§   There may be personal influence of the researcher in the data collection

§  A child's actions and behaviors in one environment do not necessarily match those of children in other environments

§  The actual behavior and nature may not be known while being under the observation of the researcher

§  A researcher needs patience for a long time

§  If something happens to the student or the child in the middle of the study, time and money will be wasted.

 

b.    Cross-sectional method: The second important method used for the study of human development is the cross-sectional method. It is a method developed after a long discussion, study and deliberation in order to overcome the weaknesses of the longitudinal method. Initially, this method was used by Templin, a professor of psychology at Howard University.  He successfully used this method in 1957 to study the linguistic development of children between the ages of 3 to 8 years.  Similarly, psychologists Coats and Hartup used this method to study children's learning methods.

 

In this method, children of different ages are grouped together to study human development. While forming a group for study, children of different age groups (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, years) from different social, economic, geographical environment and different genders are selected on the basis of random sampling and children's behavior is studied and explained.  Hence this method is called representative method. This method is considered a scientific method because it identifies, selects, explains, analyzes and generalizes and differentiates problems based on certain rules, principles and procedures.  In this method, certain facts of human development are collected from the study of children of different age groups at the same time without studying the same child at different developmental stages.  By analyzing and evaluating the obtained statistics, conclusions are obtained about the average behavior rather than a particular behavior.

 

Advantages / merits

The major advantages of this method are:

§  Saves time, resources and labor

§  Study can be conducted from one person (researcher)

§  It is based on the scientific method

§  Children of different age groups can be studied at the same time

§  It is more practical in terms of operation and study

§  Easy to generalize the results and interpret average behavior

Limitation / disadvantages/ demerits

The advantages of this method are:

§  It is not possible to study the continuous and gradual growth of the child

§  This method ignores differences between different age groups

§  It ignores the impact of cultural and environmental changes on development

§  Because the developmental conditions in selected children do not develop from the same environment, the behaviors studied may not be reliable and valid

§  It is difficult to determine the effect of individual child differences in the study etc.

Differences between longitudinal and cross-sectional method

Longitudinal Method	Cross-sectional Method
The same group is studied continuously for a long time	Many groups of different conditions and age levels are studied only once
It covers relatively a small sample	It covers relatively a large sample
It is considered more expensive in terms of time, means and resources.	It takes less time and is therefore considered practical and less expensive
Many experts or researchers are required	Studies can also be conducted with fewer researchers
It is difficult to find person to study for long periods of time which may lead to problems in sample selection	Selecting a sample is easy as the study is completed in a short period of time.
More time is needed to draw conclusions and generalize the study	Conclusions can be drawn and generalized immediately.
It involves nuanced (सुक्ष्म) study of child with his individual differences	In this method only behaviour is studied according to time and situation.

 

 

 

c.     Case study method: Case study is the third and most important method of studying human growth and development. It is also called intensive study method or in-depth study method etc. It was initially used by doctors during medical studies, but today psychologists have started using it to study and solve children's personality problems.  Case study method is used for the study of human development and to provide good guidance and counseling services to children.

 

The definition given by different scholars about case study is as follows:

According to Staffer and Lazarus “A case study of an individual is essentially a story about his life presented in the most complete and objective manner possible.”

According to P.V. Young, “Case study is a method of exploring and analysing the life of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even entire community.’

J.L. Baker defines "A case study is research strategy, which focuses on a single organisation, institution, event, decision, policy or group or possibly a multiple set.”

In the word of Wolf and Pant, "A case study is a research method which investigate the conditions or status of a person or group and is designed to increase understanding as it exists in real life setting."

According to R.L. Gay,  "A case study is in-depth investigation of an individual, group or institution in education, case studies are typically conducted to determine the background, environment and characteristics of children with problems."

A case study is an extended form of cumulative record. In this method, a detailed information related to a person's problem, acquired ability, interest, attitude, personality, education, health as well as the person's family status, social relations, family history, friends, is collected.  It is very useful in the study of gifted people, children with mental retardation, maladjusted children, criminals and children who appear as social problems. Case studies often focus more on the study of abnormal than normal children.  Behaviors of problematic children at school such as running away from school, cheating, stealing, not doing homework, etc. can be studied and proper guidance and counseling can be provided.

Historically, psychologist Sigmund Freud introduced this method to child studies. He used this method to study the behavior of abnormal and disorganized children. American psychologist Terman used this method for 20 years to distinguish the personality characteristics of gifted children. Herbert Spencer used ethnographic studies to advance this type of research. Similarly, other psychologists such as Witmer, Woole, Conne and Elikish etc. also used this method.

Steps of case study

The following steps should be taken to effectively use the case study method:

§  Selection of the case

§  Determining present status of children

§  Formulation of hypothesis

§  Collection of data

§  Verification of hypothesis

§   Suggestions for problem solving

§  Follow up study of the case

 

Advantages / merits of case study

The advantages of using this method in the study of human growth and development are as follows:

§  The cause of unusual and problematic behavior can be discovered

§  A person's past and present situation can be studied in detail

§  Human behavior can be predicted on the basis of obtained facts and experience

§  The basis for providing proper guidance and counselling to the individual or student is obtained

§  A path to further research is opened

§  An understanding of the interrelationships between various aspects influencing human development can be developed

§  It helps children's problem solving and personality building.

Disadvantages / demerits

The major disadvantages of using case study method are:

§  Personal biases of the researcher may remain. There is influence of subjectivity.

§  The researcher may not get adequate and complete information about the person's past and present condition

§  It takes more time, means and resources

§  Information may be inaccurate and not verifiable

§  Findings cannot be generalized

§  As it needs to study for a long time, there is a possibility of adding another problem while studying

§   It is more remedial than research oriented

§  The same event or behavior may be perceived and interpreted differently by different researchers

§  A qualified, experienced and trained researcher is required for the study etc.

 

Implications of case study

Case study can be used in the following tasks:

§  To study the people who are unable to adjust in the society and give necessary guidance and advice

§  To identify the problems of troublesome and abnormal children in class and provide remedial services

§  To understand the physical and mental development of children

§  To make an in-depth study of some aspect of a person or organization

§  To diagnose a patient's disease and provide therapeutic services in the field of education etc.

1.5 Major Issues in Human Development

There is no consensus among scholars on some subjects that psychology studies. Many questions in this field are still unanswered even today. This is still a subject of research and investigation.  There are many controversies about the type of development that occurs in different aspects in different stages of human growth and development and what it is influenced by.  Some of these issues include: What influences human development?  Is development based on genetic traits or is it based on environment?  Is development static or dynamic?  Does development happen continuously or only for a certain period of time?  These and such questions are still debated today.  Among such controversial issues or developmental issues, the main ones prescribed by our curriculum are as follows:

a.     Nature versus nurture

b.    Stability versus change

c.     Continuity versus discontinuity

 

a.     Nature versus nurture

In developmental psychology, nature means heredity and nurture means environment. Even today, not everyone has the same opinion about the fact that the development of a person is influenced more by nature or by the nurture. Hereditary or genetic factor (nature) is the biological quality that is transmitted from parents to children by birth, while all other aspects except Gene are called environment (nurture).  Whether nature or the environment has more influence on human development is still a controversial issue.  This is called the issue of Nature vs Nurture.

In this debate between various theorists, philosophers and academics, each one emphasizes their own side, but there is still a dispute about which one has more influence. John Locke emphasizing on the role of environment argues that at birth a child is born with empty mind (a blank slate or tabula rasa) that can be filled up through experience and training.  While Philosophers  like Rousseau, Darwin, Lamarck, Mendel, Galton, Gesell etc. have emphasized on the genetic aspect.  Behavioral psychologists Watson, Pavlov, Skinner etc. have also given importance to the environmental aspect in human growth and development. But psychologist Wood Worth has overemphasized the role of heredity in human development.  According to him, 80% genetics and 20% environmental factors play a role in human development.

Both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) play a role in human development.  Human development is the result of the interaction of these two aspects.  Although the role of heredity appears to be indirect and the role of environment direct, the development of inherited traits or characteristics requires a suitable environment.  During human development, conception is based on heredity while development is based on environment.  Therefore, both of them have an equally important role in growth and development.

b.    Stability versus change

Among the issues that have appeared in various aspects of human development, stability or change has also remained as a controversy.  This means that there is no consensus among the psychologists whether human behaviors are stable or changeable.  Some psychologists emphasize that human behaviours are stable or permanent in nature, while others argue that behaviours are variable among humans.

Human development begins with conception.  In the state of pregnancy, the creature that is in the form of a small embryo gradually grows and changes and is born as a whole human being after nine months.  Similarly, a small, ignorant child at birth changes in various forms through the new-born, infancy, childhood, adulthood and old age. In this process, physical, mental, emotional, social and moral development and changes take place in him. From this fact, it is said that development is not static but variable. It is clear that there is a property of Change. Psychologists like Thomas, Chess, Michael Rutter suggest that development involves change.

On the other hand, human development is not only physical development but also mental, social, emotional and intellectual development.  In some people, the activities that appeared in childhood such as fear, anger, jealousy, sense of humour, shyness, etc. are seen even in adulthood and old age.  Also, some parts or organs in humans remain the same from birth to death.  The persistence of such habits from childhood can be considered a stability effect.  If development is variable, why did such stable behaviours appear?  This question is still unanswered, litigated (as issue) and controversial. Psychologists such as Sroufe, Egeland, Kreutzer, Gaspi, Silva, Freud, Erik Erickson, etc. are found to emphasize the argument that the quality of stability remains in human behavior.

In fact, it is very difficult to determine which early human behaviors are permanent and which behaviors can be changed. However, some behaviors that appear during human development appear in the same form from childhood to old age, while some behaviors change with age. In conclusion what we can say is that apart from some qualities, characteristics and behaviors of human beings’ other qualities and behaviors can be changed as per our wish.

 

c.     Continuity versus discontinuity

Another important issue and debate in the field of human development is continuity or discontinuity in development.  From conception to death, a person undergoes gradual changes in physical, mental, social, emotional, etc. aspects. It is natural.  If these various aspects do not change, human development cannot be imagined.  Changes in height, weight, body type, intellectual ability, social, emotional, etc. are inevitable.  But the important question is how long will it develop?  There is discontinuity in the development of some parts or organs.  For example, human height only increases after birth until adolescence, after which it stops.  Similarly, nose, mouth, eyes and many other body parts grow and develop only for a certain period of time and then stop.  But the development of intellectual, social, emotional, moral etc. aspects does not stop.  They continue till death.  As a result, there is no exact answer to whether there is continuity or discontinuity in human development.  Therefore, continuity and discontinuity are also considered as issues in human development.

The development of physical, mental, emotional, intellectual, social, moral, etc. in the course of human development appears in different ways at different ages.  At some age, the development of the physical aspect is more, while at some age, the development of the mental aspect is accelerated.  In some cases, the development of the emotional aspect is rapid, while some age is considered important from the point of view of social and moral development.  There is a limit to various aspects of development and after reaching a certain limit, the process of development is blocked.  Therefore, there is no unanimity (agreement) among psychologists on the issue of whether human development is continuous or discontinuous, and this issue has been in the form of a debate.

 

              Unit 2

Developmental Stages and Characteristics

Human development is a continuous process. The life begins with the union of male sex cells - sperm and female sex cells - ovum. Thus, from the stage of conception to death, human beings pass through various stages.  Each of these stages has different characteristics.  Behaviours exhibited by different individuals are related to developmental stages and these behaviours appear differently at different stages. Elizabeth Hurlock, a well-known psychologist in the field of developmental psychology, has presented the idea that the stage of human development should be classified from the stage of conception as follows:

 

a.     Prenatal period. This is the stage from conception to the birth of the child. This stage is also divided into the following three parts:

§  Zygote stage: conception to 2 weeks

§  Period of embryo: Two weeks to 2 months

§  Period of foetus: 2 months to birth

 

 

b.    Postnatal period: It is the period from birth to death. This period is also divided into different stages:

§  Infancy period:  birth to 2 weeks

§  Babyhood: 2 weeks to 2 years

§  Early childhood: 2 years to 6 years

§  Late childhood: 7 years to 10/12 years

§  Puberty stage: 10/12 years to 13/14 years

§  Adolescence period 13/14 to 18 years

§  Early adulthood:18 to 40 years

§  Middle adulthood/age: 40 to 60 years

§  Late adulthood / old age: From age 60 to death

As prescribed by the syllabus we will only discuss the following stages as follows:

 

2.1           Infancy and Babyhood: characteristics, developmental tasks and hazards

2.1.1   Infancy

a.     Introduction

The period up to two weeks after birth is called infancy.  It is the shortest and most critical period of human life.  A child grows up in a special environment in the mother's womb.  After birth he gets a different and new kind of environment.  As the new-born is tender and weak, everything in the external environment is new and problematic for him.  In this case, the child's physical contact with the mother is also formally separated.  Various functions such as respiration and excretion which were carried out through the umbilical cord in the mother's womb, now the child has to do it by himself.  Thus, as soon as the child is born, he has to face difficulties in this situation. He has to do the work of adjusting to the environment along with these two tasks.  In this work, if the child does not have the necessary support and care from the mother or other person, the child may even die.  Although short in duration, it is divided into two parts:

I.                  Partunate period: The stage after the baby is born until the umbilical cord is separated is called partunate period. This period is of 15 to 30 minutes. By this time the child is dependent on the mother.

II.               Neonate period: The two-week period from birth to the time the umbilical cord is cut is called the neonate stage.  This period is the initial stage of self-adjustment to the new environment without being completely dependent on the mother.  For example: crying, sucking mother's milk, urinating etc.

b.    Characteristics of infancy

Infancy is a special period of life which has specific characteristics. The characteristics of this stage can be clarified from the following points:

I.                  Infancy is the shortest of all development periods: This period lasts for only two weeks after birth. Among the different periods of human life, from the point of view of human development, no significant development can take place in this period.  In this stage, the weight goes down even more than at birth and the time is spent while adjusting to the external environment.

II.               Infancy is the time of radical adjustment: During this period, the child who has been living in one type of environment in the mother's womb suddenly enters a new environment for the first time.  He should adjust himself fundamentally to the external environment.  At this stage, fundamental adjustments must be made mainly in four aspects.  These include temperature, sucking and swallowing, respiration, elimination/excretion.  If these things are not coordinated, the child may die. This is why the infant mortality rate is high during this period. This period is also known as the adjustment period because the time period of two weeks is spent while adjusting.

III.           Infancy period is a plateau in development: Plateau is a condition or stage which indicates no further change or development. In infancy, the rapid growth process that occurred during pregnancy stops and remains constant until adjustment to the external environment is gained. That is why it is considered a plateau of development. To clarify further, the baby grows rapidly during pregnancy. After birth, its growth remains the same for some time and then the baby's weight starts to decrease suddenly.  Because after cutting the umbilical cord, the direct physical relationship with the mother is broken.  The child has to take all the nutrients he needs by himself and has to face the difficult challenge of the new environment.

IV.           Infancy is a preview of later development: As it is said that 'morning shows the day', the future development of human life can be estimated by looking at the condition of infants.  Just as what is in the book can be understood by looking at the preface or introduction, in the same way, the future development of human life can be estimated, predicted and previewed based on the physical condition of the infant, the pace of development, his environment and the care received.

V.              Infancy is a hazardous period: Every stage of human life is a hazardous.  Moreover, during the infant period, the child becomes more vulnerable because he has to adjust to a new and strange environment.  Various physical and psychological crises appear at this time.  The fact that more than 80 percent of child mortality occurs during this period also confirms that this period is critical.

VI.           Infancy is a period of complete or extreme helplessness: An infant can neither do its activities by itself nor can it express its problems and needs. Hunger, thirst, cold, heat, health problems/sickness etc. have to be understood by others and the child is helpless because he cannot do anything.

 

c.     Developmental tasks

Infancy is the first and shortest period after birth.  There is nothing that can be done in this short period of time, although some developmental activities appear which are as follows:

§  The child is freed from the mother's dependence and maintains its existence as an independent person

§  Adjusts to external low temperature

§  Start breathing on his own

§  Learns to suck and swallow

§  Begins to pass urine and stool on its own etc.

 

d.    Hazards in infancy

Infancy is very delicate and hazardous.  Various physical and mental problems may appear during this period which can be mentioned as follows:

§  If the mother suffers from any serious illness during pregnancy and uses drugs, smokes, drinks, narcotic drugs, or alcohol, the health of the unborn child will be affected.

§  If the birth is difficult and complicated and the device needs to be used, brain damage can lead to anoxic (lack of oxygen in brain) condition. It may result in death of brain cells.

§   A multifetal condition can cause the baby to be difficult to move around, have low birth weight and may not be born fully mature, which affects adjustment.

§  In the case of premature birth (birth before time), the child has weight loss, muscle weakness, poor brain development, inability to absorb and swallow essential nutrients and difficulty in adjustment.

§  In the case of post-mature birth, as the child is bigger and cannot be born naturally, there may be a situation where surgery or the use of equipment may occur, which may result in physical injuries due to crushing and tearing.

§  There remains the possibility of high infant mortality.

§  If the mother is pregnant in a short birth space, the development of the foetus cannot be good, such children cannot adjust easily.

§  If the parents do not have a positive attitude towards the child's appearance, color, behavior, gender, birth experience, etc., their upbringing, love and affection will not be proper, which will have a negative psychological effect on the child over time.

 

2.1.2   Babyhood

a.     Introduction

Babyhood is the period from two weeks to two years after birth.  Among the various stages of human development, this stage has its own characteristics and significance.  From this period, the child's dependence gradually decreases and self-reliance increases.  The child gradually controls his body and becomes able to walk, swing, eat solid things and speak.  This period is viewed with special importance as the foundation of various aspects of later development is laid in this stage.  Parents should pay special attention to lay a good foundation during this period as the habit will be developed in the future.  Among the different stages of life, this stage is a state of rapid physical development.  Social development also begins in the last one year of babyhood.  In this stage, the children are crawling, so psychologists have called it 'Toddler'.  Children of this age are mostly self-centred.  They consider their parents, brothers and sisters, household goods, toys all their own.  During this period the impulses are transient but fierce or intense.  They are able to express their feelings, understand common and simple conversations, gestures and act accordingly.

 

b.    Characteristics of babyhood

Common characteristic features seen in babyhood are as follows:

I.                  Babyhood is the true foundation age: In babyhood, all the pillars of human life are formed.  A child's behavioral and emotional patterns, beliefs, perceptions etc are formed during this time which have an impact on later life.  For this reason, the foundation of good attitude and behavior should be laid. From a young age, they should be given good information, guidance and good practice training.

II.               Babyhood is the age of rapid growth and change: Physical and mental growth and development during babyhood is faster than other periods. In the first six months after birth, such change is very rapid, after which it slows down a bit. By the age of 1 year, the baby's weight is about 3.5 times its birth weight and its height is 2/3 times its birth height. During this time, the annual head growth rate is 3 to 5 inches in height and 3 to 5 pounds in weight, which may not be so rapid at other periods. Besides, they are also able to walk and communicate their own feelings by using language and recognise and respond to people and objects in their surrounding.

III.           Babyhood is the age of decreasing dependency: At first, the baby is completely dependent on the parents.  He is totally dependent on others for food, clothing and other physical needs.  But he slowly starts eating, sitting and running on his own.  Similarly, he is able to move and control different parts of the body.  Thus, the dependence on others gradually decreases and the child is able to meet his basic needs by himself. The child wants to explore his own world and does not obey the instructions of his parents.  Thus negativism is seen in him which is an indicator of decreasing dependency.

IV.           Babyhood is the age of increasing individuality: Due to increased independence, babies have the opportunity to develop their interests and abilities.  It enhances his individuality and turns him into a unique personality.  Individuality is reflected in their appearance and behaviour patterns.  Individuality increases as dependence decreases.

V.              Babyhood is the age of beginning of socialization: During this period, children cry and scream when they are alone and laugh and play when they are in a group.  When they see a familiar person, they smile and wave their hands to carry them, but when they see a stranger, they stop what they are doing, cry and shout. This shows that they prefer to be with others and socialize. Therefore, this period is called the time of beginning of socialization.

VI.           Babyhood is the beginning of sex role typing: Before post-infancy, no significant sex differences appear.  Eating, bringing and everything else looks the same.  After reaching this stage, differences in sexual roles usually begin to appear.  If there is a son, he wears a daura, a shirt, while a daughter wears a frock, a kohl (gaajal) so that children can be clearly distinguished from a distance.

VII.       Babyhood is an appealing age: Babies look adorable with innocent faces, big eyes, chubby cheeks, button noses, infectious laughs, soft skin, and lovely smells.  They are appealing because their cuteness attracts everyone.

VIII.    Babyhood is the beginning of creativity: Babyhood is the age of beginning of creative abilities.  They start doing various creative activities like cutting paper and making objects of different shapes, writing, making houses of different shapes, playing, listening to songs.  This indicates that their creative ability has begun to develop.

IX.           Babyhood is the hazardous period: There is no stage of human life that is free from danger. Babies may have physical problems such as mouthing and choking on anything they find, falling when trying to walk, and injuring themselves even when they are able to walk.  Diseases and accidents are the major threats of this age.  Various psychological crises also occur during this time. Thus, childhood remains a hazardous period.

 

c.     Developmental tasks in babyhood

There are different developmental functions that appear at different stages of human development.  If a person can carry out developmental tasks according to their age and condition, then it helps in their personality development.  However, if s/he fails, it will make the him anxious and sad and its negative impact can have a negative impact on the future life as well.  The developmental tasks of babyhood can be summarized as follows:

§  Being able to walk

§  Start eating solid food

§  Learning to talk/communicate

§  Gaining partial control over elimination of body wastes

§  Achieving stability in bodily functions such as hunger, thirst, and sleep

§  Learning to perform roles according to gender differences

§  Learning to have emotional connections with people close to them

 

d.    Hazards in babyhood

Babyhood is a critical period.  The hazards that appear at different stages are of different types. The threats occurring during babyhood can be discussed as follows:

I.                  Physical hazards: Physical hazard predominates among the hazards that appear in babyhood. Such hazard is seen more in the first year of birth. Some of the physical hazards that occur in babyhood are as follows:

§  Frequent illness and health problems

§  Birth defect related problems

§  Low birth weight

§  Accidents and injuries

§  Malnutrition

§  Low immunity power and physical weakness

§  Untime death etc.

 

II.               Psychological hazards

Some of the psychological hazards that may appear during babyhood are as follows:

§  Hazard created by emotional repression

§  Egocentrism (अहंकार)

§  Hazard caused by separation from mother

§  Emotional dominance

§  Nagging, disobeying, yelling, being stubborn etc.

§  Dependency caused by giving more love, affection and security etc.

 

 

2.2            Early and late childhood: characteristics, developmental tasks and hazards

 

2.2.1   Early childhood

a.    Introduction

The period from two years to 10/12 years is called childhood. In the course of human development, this stage is considered very important and foundation stage.  Some behaviours learned during this period guide them to the later stages of life. To facilitate the study, psychologists have divided childhood into two parts, early childhood and late childhood, based on the specific characteristics that appear with age change. According to which, the period from 2 to 6 years is called early childhood. Early childhood is the age of formal socialization.  Children with this stage are very curious and mischievous.  There is rapid change in the functional and cognitive development of children.  By the end of early childhood, children have developed their specific attitudes, interests and independent working style.

 

b.    Characteristics of early childhood

Based on the specific activities that children show in different areas, parents, educators and psychologists mention the following separate characteristics of early childhood:

I.                  Characteristics based on names used by parents

·       Problematic or troublesome age: Children of this age are more stubborn, disobedient, obstinate, have antagonistic feelings and try to do various things without paying attention.  So that they do not get success in the work.  They break things, spoil things, etc.  Parents call this age the age of problems because they create problems for parents from everywhere.

·       The toy age: Children of this age are not able to go to school and are not able to do any work with family or social responsibility. They spend all their time in playing except sleeping time. This time is also called the age of toys because when they get a new or favorite toy, they think of it as a real friend and stay engrossed in playing.

II.               Characteristics based on the names used by educators

·       The pre-school age: During this period, children are not old enough to go to school because they are not physically and psychologically mature enough to take part in the activities of formal education.  This stage is called pre-school age because it is the time to learn the basic things while sitting at home before entering school.  Nowadays, different types of government, private and non-government organizations have established nurseries, kindergartens, day care centres, etc. to educate children with the help of various activities.  Although this time is not the time of formal education, it can be used to teach schooling habit.

III.           Characteristics based on the names used by psychologist

·       Pre-gang age: Children in early childhood have already come in contact with their family members and with the close friends of their age in village, neighbourhood and school.  They try to live and play together in social groups and gain acceptance from the peers. In this way, since it is the time of preparation for learning the social behaviors needed to join the group, psychologists have named this period the age of preparation for the group or pre-gang age formed in late-childhood.

·       Inventory or exploratory age: Children in early childhood are very much curious. They want to know more about the environment around them. If they see something new, they try to understand its reality by biting, touching, shaking and manipulating it. They acquire the knowledge of reality through the use of sense organs.

·       Questioning age: It is nature of kids in early childhood to ask questions after questions. They ask endless questions about the subjects, objects and events around them. Being very curious, they ask questions about any thing like what, why, how, where did it come from, etc. This is why psychologists call this age the questioning age.

·       Imitative age: Children of this period are not able to distinguish whether or not something is right or wrong by thinking, considering or based on their intellectual ability. They learn by copying what their elders or parents say and do. Through this, they refine their skills and also learn social roles.

·       Creative age: Kids in early childhood are very creative. They try to do everything in a unique and original way.  They like to play different kinds of creative games.  Psychologists call this age the creative age as they engage in creative activities like dancing, singing, making different pictures, making objects of different shapes out of wood and paper, making sand houses etc.

 

c.     Developmental tasks in early childhood

In early childhood, kids begin many developmental tasks. More functional changes are seen during this period than in babyhood. Some of these developmental tasks are presented below:

§  Learning to walk, run and jump

§  Being able to wear clothes

§  Being able to take food by own self

§  Learning to do conversation

§  Learning to perform roles according to gender differences

§  Achieving stability in physiological activities

§  Gaining control in elimination of body wastes

§  Getting ready to read and write

§  Learning to distinguish between right from wrong

§  Building a general perception of various objects, events and processes

§  Being able to maintain emotional relationships with relatives and others

§  Being able to build vocabulary, pronounce correctly and understand and construct simple sentences etc.

 

d.    Hazards of early childhood

·       Mortality: Deaths in early childhood are often the result of accidents than of illness, and because boys have more accidents than girls, deaths in early childhood are more frequent among boys than among girls.

·       Illness: Young children are highly susceptible to all kinds of illness, though respiratory illness is the most common.

·       Accidents: Most young children at this age experience accidental cuts, infections, burns, broken bones, muscle strains, or similar minor disturbances.  This problem is seen more in boys than in girls.

·       Unattractiveness: Due to the food choices of children in early childhood, they become fatter and lose their physical beauty. They become increasingly unattractive and less appealing by the time of entering late childhood.

·       Left-Handedness: Being left-handed in early childhood is considered hazardous.  When young children try to learn a skill from a right-handed person, they may be confused about how to imitate the model.  Left-handedness can affect a child's academic, occupational and social adjustment.

·       Speech Hazards: Speech is a means of communication that is essential for social interaction.  Children who cannot communicate with others unlike their peers will be socially handicapped, and this leads to feelings of inadequacy and inferiority.

·       Emotional Hazards: There is the dominance of unpleasant emotions, especially anger in early childhood.  It will distort their outlook on life and encourage the development of unpleasant temperaments.

·       Social Hazards:  Young children tend to spend disproportionately more time with other children, so they are more likely to fall into addiction.

·       Moral Hazards: A tendency to emphasize too much punishment for misbehavior and too little emphasis on rewards for good behavior can lead to negative attitudes toward parents, teachers, and parents.

·       Family-Relationship Hazards: Deterioration in human relationships is hazardous for good personal and social adjustment.  Threats to good parent-child relationships in early childhood include mothers who work outside the home and stepparents.  When children have to be cared for by relatives or paid caregivers or sent to a day-care center.  It brings negativity in children's psychology.

 

2.2.2   Late childhood

a.    Introduction

The period of life from 6 to 10/12 years is called late childhood. In other words, the period of time from 6 years until reaching sexual maturity is called late childhood.  This period is different in boys and girls.  As girls mature sexually earlier than boys, their late childhood ends earlier than boys.  Therefore, the age of boys from 6 to 12 years and the age of girls from 6 to 10 years are considered late childhood.

In this period too, there is continuity in various aspects of development that started in early childhood. This stage is also known as formal school entry age which is an important event or stage in their life. It is important for recognition of basic value, attitude and behavioural changes.  Social, mental and intellectual development is rapid in this age.  By the end of this age, children's physical development begins to accelerate which indicates readiness for adolescence.

 

b.    Characteristics of late childhood

As in early childhood, parents, academics and psychologists explain the characteristics with different names based on the various activities shown by children in this period as follows:

 

I.                  Characteristics based on names used by parents

·       Troublesome age: This stage is called the troublesome age because the children of this stage do not listen to their parents and do not obey them, cause nuisance (उपद्रव), destruction, only create problems.

·       Sloppy( फोहरी)age: Although children of this age can clean themselves, they do not pay much attention to this matter.  They are careless and irresponsible.  They don't care about their possession and clothes.  Playing in the dust, sitting haphazardly etc. makes them look dirty.  Therefore, this age is also called sloppy age.

·       Quarrelsome age: Children in this age tend to quarrel if they don't get what they're saying right away.  They try to do the same by comparing themselves with their younger brothers and sisters and if they don't get it, they fight, tease, call names, make noise and create disturbance.

 

II.               Characteristics based on the names used by educators

·       Elementary school age: When children reach this period, they have matured physically and mentally.  From a psychological point of view, after reaching the age of 6, they are ready to go to school, read, write, participate in group work, obey class discipline, and learn.  Therefore, this age is considered by pedagogues as the primary school age.

·       Critical period: This age is considered very important from the point of view of achievement.  They seem worried if they don't get/achieve  what they want.  Therefore, this period is seen as a sensitive and critical age.

 

III.           Characteristics based on the names used by psychologists

·       Gang age: The interest of children of this age is to live together with their friends. To them everything is a group of friends.  Their habits, behavior and life style are also affected by the group of friends. Being separated from friends is a matter of great concern.  They play in small gang of 3/4 people.  If they get a friend, they don't care about all other things.  Disobeying parents and following group standards sometimes creates contradictions.

·       Creative age: Children of this age are involved in creative activities such as making different patterns, coloring, drawing, singing, dancing, etc.

·       Play age: Apart from school time, they spend all their time in sports with playmates. This age is also called the age of play as there is a great fascination for games.

 

C. Development tasks in late childhood

According to psychologist Havinghurst, the developmental tasks in late childhood are as follows:

·       Beginning of development of appropriate masculine or feminine social role

·       Learning to get along with age mates

·       Development of fundamental skills in reading writing and calculation

·       Development of concepts necessary for everyday living

·       Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games

·       Development of conscience, a sense of morality and social values

·       Development of attitude towards social groups and institutions

·       Achieving personal independence

·       Building awesome attitude towards own-self as a growing organism etc.

 

e.     Hazards in late childhood

Late childhood is surrounded by various problems and hazards which are briefly described below:

I.                  Physical hazards

·       Illness: There is a possibility of getting sick in late childhood. The most common disease during late childhood period is chicken pox. measles, mumps, polio etc. Besides, chronic health ailments like T.B., Pneumonia etc. can hinder the child's motor abilities.

·       Accidents: School age children are prone to various accidents and injuries.  Because they are more adventurous in nature and run fast, play hard, ride bicycles and scooters and engage in various sports.  Illness  causes delays in their motor skills. Sickness and injuries keep away the children from their daily routines.

·       Physical Impairments: Disability and impairment are another physical hazards of late childhood.  Blind children are slow to develop motor skills such as walking, climbing or manipulating objects.  Children with physical disabilities have poor balance or equilibrium.

·       Obesity: Diet, lack of exercise, use of certain medication,  socioeconomic background, psychology, etc. can lead to childhood obesity. It can have profound effects on children's physical health, social, and emotional well-being and self-esteem, as well as academic performance and quality of life.

·       Sex-inappropriate body build: Sometimes a child's physical development may not be appropriate.  Girls with a masculine body build and boys with a girlish body encounter different problem.

·       Awkwardness:

Kids in late childhood may struggle with movement and coordination problems in different ways. During the childhood years, proficiency in play and games is an important factor in the social and emotional development of children. Some children develop physical awkwardness compared to age mates and playmates. It impacts a child’s ability to do well in school and to make friends leading to social isolation and poor self-esteem. 

II.               Psychological hazards

·       Speech hazards: Children with small vocabularies, mispronunciations, grammatical errors, speech defects, critical and controlling comments etc. may exhibit self-loathing (आत्मग्लानि), embarrassment and maladjustment.

·       Emotional hazards: At this age, inappropriate emotional outbursts or expressions may appear which may lead to various psychological problems later.

·       Social hazards: In late childhood, those who lack social acceptance are rejected and ignored by peers.  Such children are deprived of learning opportunities and become dissatisfied and unhappy.

·       Hazards in sex role typing: When children fail to learn the sexual elements of sex roles that peers deem appropriate, they may be neglected by peers.  They are teased and this has a negative psychological effect on children.

·       Family relationship hazards: Weak family relationships lead to negative adjustment patterns in children and foster negative feelings toward members of the home.

·       Hazards in personality development: The development of unfavourable self-concept, self-rejection, feelings of ego, etc. at this age have a negative impact on the child's personality and psychological development.

 

2.3           Puberty and Adolescence: Characteristics and Developmental Tasks

 

2.3.1   Puberty

 

a.    Introduction

 

Puberty is the developmental stage between childhood and adolescence in which the asexual period ends and the sexual stage begins. In this period, children become capable of reproduction. In general, the period from 12-13 years to 14-15 years, when sexual maturity is achieved from a physiological point of view, is understood as puberty.  This period is considered as a significant period of life from the point of view of growth and development of physical organs and psychological changes.

The word Puberty is derived from the Latin word Pubertas which means age of manhood.  In this sense, the term puberty literally means a person capable from physical growth and development.  However, it cannot be considered mature from a social and mental point of view.  In ancient times, puberty was considered as a state of maturity in terms of physical development as well as other behavioral changes. But modern psychologists have opined that the behaviour change that appears in this stage is not a sign of maturity but is the effect of sudden physical growth and development.

b.    Characteristics of puberty

Puberty is an important period of life which is full of vivid characteristics. Some major ones are briefly discuss below:

I.                  Puberty is an overlapping period:

Puberty starts from 10-12 years and lasts until 13-14 years.  Late childhood lasts for 10-12 years and adolescence starts from 13-14 years.  Here, puberty covers the last two years of late childhood and the first two years of adolescence.  In achieving sexual maturity, puberty overlaps with both late childhood and adolescence, so this stage is called the stage of puberty. This means that puberty begins without ending late childhood and adolescence begins before puberty ends.

II.               Puberty is a short period:     

 Puberty officially begins at the age of 12 and ends at the age of 13-14.  Generally, children reach sexual maturity with in the period of 2 to a maximum of 4 years.  Fast maturing children reach physical maturity within 2 years, while slow maturing children may take 3-4 years.  Thus, except the period of infancy, this period is called a short period because it is completed in a brief period of time.

III.           Puberty is divided into various stages:

Although this is a short period, it is divided into the following three stages:

·       Pre-mature or prepubescent stage: At this time, there is beginning of the development of secondary sex characteristics in boys and girls, but the reproductive organs are not matured.

·       Pubescent Stage: The period after the age of childhood but not reaching adolescence is called puberty stage.  At this time menarche or first menstruation in girls and nocturnal emission in boys starts.  During this period, in addition to further development of secondary sexual characteristics, sex cells also develop rapidly.

·       Post Pubescent Stage: It is considered as the first stage of adolescence.  At this time, secondary sexual characteristics develop in boys and girls and their sexual organs also get matured.  For example: girls get breast growth and their body looks organized, similarly boys get beard and mustache and their body looks strong etc.

IV.           Puberty is the time of rapid growth and change:

During puberty, physical growth and development of children accelerates.  Physical growth is especially rapid in the first 6 months to 1 year of puberty.  After the onset of puberty, the pituitary gland in the brain helps in physical growth by producing growth hormone.  In addition, the secretion of Gonadotropic hormone accelerates the growth and development of sexual organs.  As physical growth and changes are seen immediately in a short period of time, it is called the time of growth spurt (rapid growth and change).

  Due to physical changes, there are also changes in social adjustment, behavior, values ​​and beliefs. The rapid and sudden growth and development occurring in children makes them impatient and also leads them towards uncomfortable behavior.  Similarly, sudden changes in interest, thinking, speaking, walking, eating and drinking etc. also begin to appear.

V.              Puberty is a negative age:

When children of this age cannot cope with the sudden and rapid changes in the field of physical growth and development, serious psychological crises begin to arise in them.  As they are unable to understand the sudden changes in their body parts and sexual characteristics, they start to feel fear, stress and anxiety.  As a result, they start looking at their life in a negative light.  Often, children in this age develop a negative attitude towards their own life, including parents, school, teachers, society's values, religion, culture and peers.  They may even lose the good qualities they had developed earlier. Although there is more development of negative nature in the early years of puberty, after reaching sexual maturity in them, these natures gradually disappear.

VI.           Puberty occurs at a variable age:

Not all children start puberty at the same age and sequence.  In some people, sexual maturity comes early, while in others it comes late. Those who mature earlier than the average age are called premature and those who are late are called late matured. It is observed due to the interaction of pituitary and sex glands or gonads. Environment also plays a role in this matter. The reason behind this is hot or cold environment, free or restricted social environment, financial lack, lack of balanced diet etc.  Thus, since puberty does not appear at the same age in all places, it is said that puberty occurs at different ages.

 

c.     Development tasks in puberty

Puberty is one of the stages of human development.  Like other stages of human development, puberty also has its own developmental tasks which are presented as follows:

·       Accepting rapid physical changes and making proper use of them

·       Disappearing the symptoms of childhood and beginning of symptoms of adulthood gradually

·       Achieving sexual maturity and the ability to produce offspring

·       Performing sexually appropriate social roles

·       Maintaining mature relationships with same-sex and opposite-sex peers

·        Identifying one's responsibility in family and society

·       Behaving maturely as expected by society

·       Appearing the bases of sexual signs such as first menstruation/menarchy in girls and nocturnal emission in boys) etc.

 

2.3.2   Adolescence

 

a.    Introduction

Adolescence is an important stage in human life.  Poets compare adolescence as the spring season of human life.  Adolescence comes from the Greek word "Adolescere" which means "to grow to maturity".  Psychologists consider adolescence to be a transitional period in life.  It is also known as teenage period.

Generally, the period of time from 12 to 18/19 years where children are progressing physically, mentally, socially and emotionally from childhood to mature adult is called adolescence. There are different viewpoints regarding the age of adolescence.  For example, in the United States, this age is considered to be 18 years, while in Nepal, it is 21 years. This period usually lasts from 13 to 18/19 years in girls and 14 to 20/21 years in boys.  

For children entering adolescence, the cultural and socio-economic environment has a particular influence.  The early years of adolescence are limited to rapid physical growth and development, while the later years focus on the fullness of mental and social development.  Adolescence is the age of real life and children of this stage leave the childishness to build their effective position in the society and focus on the development of real lifestyle by acquiring the necessary attitudes and beliefs.  In this way, there are huge quantitative and qualitative changes in all physical, mental, emotional and social areas of adolescent children.

Adolescence is also classified into the following two parts:

·       Early adolescence: It is a period of 13-16/17 years. Mainly sexual and physical maturity appears during this period. Children have yet to fully mature. Children of this age are flighty, rambunctious and wandering, so psychologists call it the ‘terrible teens.’

·       Late adolescence: This is a period from 17-18/19 years. This is a short but mature behavior stage. In this stage, emotional, mental, social and other maturity appears. Children are called young man or young woman, youth etc.

b.    Characteristics of adolescence

Adolescence is a transitional period in which specific features appear that make it different from other periods.  Its main characteristics are as follows:

·       Adolescence is an important period: Every developmental stage is important.  Moreover, adolescence is considered as an important stage as it is full of various significant events.  Psychologist Terman has mentioned that the period from 12 to 16 years is eventful for most children.  In this age, children develop a balanced and mature personality by attaining maturity in the development of all aspects of physical, mental, social, emotional etc.

·       Adolescence is a transitional period:

Adolescence is a developmental stage between childhood and adulthood. As children enter adolescence, they still exhibit the immature childish characteristics of childhood and puberty.  But on the other hand, they have to develop mature behaviour and attitudes that are suitable and acceptable in society.  At this age, they can neither be treated as children nor as adults. Due to the influence of pre-immature habits and lack of sufficient experience, children are confused if they cannot establish the values ​​of adolescence. So, adolescence is called the transitional period.

·       Adolescence is a period of change: During adolescence, in addition to physical development, there are rapid changes in the areas of mental and social development.  Especially during the early years of adolescence, physical growth and development are rapid, while in the later years, mental and social development is rapid.  According to psychologists, especially five permanent changes such as (i) heightened emotions, (ii) ambitions (iii) sexual maturity, (iv) socially approved activities (v) ability to bear responsibility etc. appear at this stage.  That is why adolescence is called a period of change.

·       Adolescence is the time of searching for identity: Adolescent children want to show themselves as competent and good young people in front of the society. They consider themselves socially, religiously and morally responsible.  They express interest in speech, dress and behavioral patterns to make themselves look like adults.  In this context, they are interested in getting the answers of questions such as who I am? what my rights and duties are? what my sexual and social roles are? and where my social position is? etc.   Hence adolescence is called the time of searching for identity.

·       Adolescence is the time of unrealism: Teenagers have high ambitions, wild imaginations and daydreams.  Also they waste time on impossible things.  That is why it is called the time of unrealism.

·       Adolescence is the dreaded age:

Due to rapid physical growth and development and unfavorable environment, most of the teenagers in this condition are victims of negative thinking.  They fear and worry about the consequences of their careless and destructive behaviour and the ostracism (बहिष्कार) of society.  Due to these reasons, children with this age are afraid to take social responsibility.

·       Adolescence is a problematic age: Adolescence is also called the age of problems.  Children in this situation have to face many problems while adjusting themselves according to social values ​​and norms.  Similarly, due to their confused, unstable and ambitious behavior, they may do anti-social acts, creat chaos, and do destructive activities, due to which the parents and the society may also have to face many problems.  That is why it is called the age of problems.

·       Adolescence is the threshold to adulthood: By the end of adolescence, children have almost reached maturity from the point of view of physical, human, social, and moral development.  As a result, in they begin to show appropriate positive human behaviors.  In addition to preparing for their future life, they also imitate the  behaviors of adults, good or bad, such as smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol, taking drugs, and engaging in promiscuous sexual activities in order to show themselves as mature as adults.  Based on the mentioned reasons, adolescence can be considered as the demarcation of entering adulthood.

·       Adolescence is the age of daydreaming: Teenagers are more imaginative. They fantasize about themselves to be like rich people, capitalist, hero-heroine etc.  They compare their lives with 'potted roses'.  They become more excited by even the slightest praise and think themselves great and forget their reality and start drowning in fantasy.  Therefore, this age is also called the age of daydreaming.

 

c.     Developmental tasks in adolescence

Psychologist Havighrust presents the developmental work of the adolescent stage as follows:

§  Achieving new and more mature relation with agemates

§  Accepting one’s physique and using it effectively

§  Performing appropriate and mature gender roles

§  Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults

§  Preparing professional life for financial independence

§  Preparing for marriage and family life

§  Creating the necessary values ​​and principles for conducting the behaviour

§  Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence

§  Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behaviour etc.

 

2.4           Adulthood (early, middle and late): characteristics and hazards

 

2.4.1   Early Adulthood

a.    Introduction

The stage of human life from about 18/19 years to 40 years is called early adulthood.  It is also a period of preparing the foundation for adult life. This is the period when a person attains full maturity physically, mentally, emotionally, physically, morally, socially, academically, professionally, legally and sexually. This is a legally recognized stage for adjustment, socialization and independent living.  Most of the important experiences of human life are gained during this period. It is also a period of preparing the foundation for adult life. During this period the individual develops his interests, attitudes and values ​​to adjust to the changing new role of husband or wife, father, mother and so on.

 

b.    Characteristics of early adulthood

The major characteristic features of early adulthood are:

·       Early adulthood is the settling down age: Early adulthood is the stage of preparing the foundations for future life.  At this time, adults should establish themselves by doing tasks such as acquiring the necessary qualifications and skills for living, choosing a profession or business, bearing responsibility, managing themselves, etc.  It helps them to conduct their future life.

·       Early adulthood is the reproductive age: Early adulthood is the age at which marriage and family life begin.  During this period, they have to give birth to children, manage their upbringing, nutrition and education and perform the role of parents.  Therefore, from a social point of view, this period is considered important.

·       Early adulthood is a problematic age: Early adulthood is a problematic age.  During this period, previously unseen and unexperienced problems also appear.  The problem of adjustment becomes very serious.  Many women and men have to execute two or more roles at the same time, such as choosing a life partner, getting married, taking care of offspring, choosing a job, playing the role of a good citizen, etc., which causes problems.

·       Early adulthood is the period of emotional stress: Many emotional stresses can occur during early adulthood.  Various problems may arise at this age while entering real practical life.  If the educational achievement is not satisfactory, if they do not get a profession or business according to their qualifications, if the family and social conditions are not favorable, they feel failed.  It brings anxiety and frustration in them which invites emotional stress and tension.

·       Early adulthood is the period of social isolation: Early adulthood is a period of separation from childhood peers and batchmates due to completion of formal education, engagement in profession or business, beginning of family life, etc.  Similarly, due to family, children, business etc. the distance with friends and relatives also increases.  They have to spend maximum time and energy to climb the ladder of success, leaving very little time for social roles and intimate friends, as a result, people become selfish and lonely.

·       Early adulthood is the age of commitment: People in early adulthood adopt new roles and establish new structures of life.  At this time, they make various vows and promises. As it is the time for the person to fulfill what he has said and fulfill the obligations according to his role, it is called the period of commitment.

·       Early adulthood is the period of dependency: Early adulthood is a self-dependent age, but due to various reasons, some people of this age are still dependent on their parents. Due to lack of finances, lack of employment, lack of skills, intense competition, failure in achievement, etc., they become dependent even at this age.

·        Early adulthood is a time of value change: In early adulthood, due to social contact and maturity, the values ​​and beliefs established in childhood and youth change.  Recent values ​​are more practical as well as time and situation friendly.  For example, people who look at school in a negative way in their teenage years also come to understand the value of education and begin to feel that education is an important step for fulfilling their personal, professional and social needs.

·       Early adulthood is the time of adjustment to new lifestyle: The compulsion to adjust oneself according to changing times and circumstances comes in early adulthood. They have to live and behave differently than in the past. For example, having to accept new concepts like premarital sex, living together relationship, abortion, changes in family structure, adult life, etc. Early adulthood is called a time of adjustment to new lifestyle because one has to accept these things and move forward.

·       Early adulthood is a creative age: People tend to be creative at this age.  They use their learning to produce new things in a unique and original way. Such creativity depends on their interest, ability, opportunity and satisfaction.

 

c.     Hazards in early adulthood

The main hazards in early adulthood are as follows:

·       Physical hazard: Irreparable ill health or appearance of physical defects is one of the hazards of this period.  This causes problems in personal and social adjustment.  Adults with poor health and disabilities may not achieve competence in their professional or social lives.  As a result, they suffer from constant frustration.

·       Social hazard: Many young adults seem to be at risk of not being able to adjust to new social situations.

·       Religious hazard: In early adulthood two hazards appear primarily in the area of ​​religion that cause emotional disturbance in many young adults.  The first is adjusting to new-religious beliefs that replace childhood family beliefs.  Another religious threat is legal pressure to adopt another faith if married to someone of a different religion.

·       Psychological hazard: Early adulthood is one of the most difficult periods in life.  The decisions they take at various stages have a major impact on life.  Major and overwhelming responsibilities can create stress and problems.  Being inadequately prepared for life challenges leads them to psychological problems like depression, anxiety, anxiety, frustration, suicide etc.  

·       Occupational Hazards: Every age has many occupational hazards.  Two particular hazards emerge in early adulthood: unemployment and job dissatisfaction.  Both of these are not only abnormal but dangerous for personal and social adjustment.

·       Marital hazards: Marriage is the beginning of a happy life.  The relationship with the spouse is central to a person's social and emotional life.  An unhappy marriage poses a threat to personal and social adjustment.  In early adulthood, marital hazards such as couple's inability to adjust, competitiveness, sexual adjustment, role change, relationship with in-laws, loneliness, divorce, remarriage may appear.

 

2.4.2   Middle Age

a.    Introduction

The age from 40 to 60 years of human life is called middle adulthood.  Various professional work is done at this age.  In terms of duration, it is considered the longest period of life.  This age can also be called a period of physical decline.  During this period, physical strength begins to decrease, mental growth slows down and laziness appears.  Similarly, in the adults of this period, people's interests begin to change.  They look serious and realistic.  They want to achieve happiness and joy and want to maintain their honor, respect and prestige in the society.  This is the age of difficulty in personal, social, professional, family adjustment.  Within this period, women's ability to give birth to children ends, while men's also decreases.  Psychologists have divided this period into the following two parts.

I.  Early middle age - 40 to 50 years

II.  Advanced middle age - 50 to 60 years

 

b.    Characteristics of middle age

The developmental characteristics seen in middle age are as follows:

·       Middle age is dreaded age:

Among the various spans of human life, the middle age is considered to be the dreadful.  After this, old age begins.  In this period, the person becomes physically and mentally weak.  Skin begins to wrinkle, hair begins to turn gray, fertility declines, and the job life comes to an end.  As a result, people remember their past and start wandering.

·       Middle age is a age of transition: Middle age is the transitional period between adulthood and old age. A young man now slowly grows old. They have to abandon past activities and behaviors and adopt new values, activities, behaviors and interests. With the changes in the body, their responsibilities also change and they have to play the role of guardian in the society.

·       Middle age is the time of stress:

Middle age is one of the longest developmental stages.  During this period, a person has to present himself in a mature and responsible manner in every way.  In this time, one has to deal and adjust with various problems in the family, financial, social and professional fields, which results in emotional stress. Therefore, while major adjustment's to work, home, social life are made, this will lead to stress. Women have stress during the period of menopause.

·       Middle age is a dangerous age: In middle age, individuality is destroyed due to excessive work, excessive anxiety, carelessness, and responsibilities.  The incidence of suicide is also at its peak.  Due to the end of youth, the relationship between husband and wife becomes cold and sometimes leads to separation and divorce.  Mostly it causes problems like physical and mental illness, alcoholism, drug abuse, poisoning and suicide in men and women.  That is why this age is considered as a dangerous time.

·       Middle age is an awkward age: Middle adulthood looks neither like adulthood nor like old people.  They can neither get along with adults nor the elderly.  They have to stand between the rebellious new generation and the senior citizens.  Due to this, their thinking and behavior become uncomfortable and awkward and they suffer from insecurity, nervousness and shyness.

·       Middle age is the time of achievement: Women and men of this age are successful and reach the  peak in every field. They achieve progress and reward in business, industry, community organizations. They also achieve authority and prestige. As leadership skills are developed, they also have the maturity to lead such areas.  Many of them are able to have a good economic status.

·       Middle age is a time of evaluation: At this age, their achievements have reached their peak.  They can make a deep assessment of anything based on previous experience.  They maturely evaluate their past and self in terms of money, social status, family size, their earlier aspiration, plans for future life etc. Their evaluation is based on reality rather than fantasy and imagination.

·       Middle age is evaluated by double standard: Middle-aged men and women are valued differently. The  changes in men in this age are evaluated as distinguished where as changes in women are evaluated as a middle age spread. This double standard makes women's standards narrower than men's.  Women are compared to youth for their visual and sexual attractiveness while men are considered handsome and sexy even at this age.  Men are also judged by their attainment of position, prestige, income, etc. whereas women are not judged according to these criteria.

·       Middle age is a time of empty nest: During this period, the children have grown up and started living separately.  After marriage and starting of professional career they live separately from their parents.  Daughters are married off and handed over to sons-in-law.  A house full of children becomes desolate (वीरान) and empty with their departure.  This condition is more painful and problematic for women than for men.

·       Middle age is a time of boredom: Most of the men and women feel very heavy by the age of 40-50.  People don't have that much enthusiasm and courage.  Married people are overwhelmed by the routine of home and time with family.  Women are tired of taking care of the house and children.  Therefore, this age is the most difficult and unhappy stage of life.

 

c.     Hazards of middle age

The major hazards that appear at this age are as follows:

·       Personal hazards: There are a number of personal hazards middle-aged people encounter in their adjustments to their new roles and new lifestyles. Of these, six are especially common and serious. They are:

- Acceptance of traditional beliefs

- Idealization of youth

- Role changes

- Changing interests

- Status symbols

-  Unrealistic aspiration

·       Physical hazards: During Middle age, people experience many physical changes that signal that the person is aging, including gray hair and hair loss, wrinkles and age spots, vision and hearing loss, and weight gain, commonly called the middle age spread. The most common health problems experienced during middle age are arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, coronary heart disease, diabetes, genitourinary disorders, hypertension, mental disorders, strokes and cerebrovascular accidents.

·       Social hazards: Among the common hazards that affect adjustment in middle age are an unattractive appearance, lack of social skills, preference for family contacts, financial problems, family pressures and obligations, a desire for popularity as expressed in immature patterns of behavior, and social mobility.

·       Psychological hazards: Due to reduced leisure time, health problems, family pressures and elevated job-related stress, middle age is often surrounded by various psychological problems. Besides, changes to family structure such as empty nest syndrome and rising rates of divorce including care for ageing parents and vulnerable relatives people are more likely to have detrimental effect on the mental health in this time.

·       Vocational hazards

§   Failure to real earlier goals

§   Decline in creativity

§  Boredom

§  Bigness

§  Feeling of being trapped

§   Unemployment

§  Unfavorable attitudes toward job

 

·       Marital hazards: Many threats to the good personal and social adjustment of middle-aged men and women develop from their marital status.  The most important of these are discussed below:

 

§  Role changes

§  Boredom

§  Opposition to a child's marriage

§  Inability to establish satisfactory relationships with the spouse as a person

§  Sexual adjustments

§  Caring for an elderly parent

§  Loss of spouse

§  Remarriage

 

2.4.3   Late adulthood

a.    Introduction

Late adulthood is also known as old age or senescence. It is the last stage of human life.  The period from above 60 years till death is called old age. During this period, the activities performed by the person are evaluated and ways to get rid of life are analysed.  This age is characterized by dissatisfaction with the present and regret for past mistakes.  It is a state of physical, mental, social and emotional decline.  Nowadays, due to the good health and comfortable living system, today's elderly seems to be living an active life even till the age of 65-70 years.  Due to the social and economic status of the person, old age also starts early in some and late in some.  This period is further divided into the following two parts:

·       Early old age: 60 to 70 years

·       Advanced old age: from 70 years to death

b.    Characteristics of old age

The characteristics of old age can be presented as follows:

·       Old age is a period of decline: People of this age are become physically and psychologically weaker day by day.  As they become physically weak, their self-confidence also goes down.  People tend to be more volatile, resulting in mental and emotional changes from moment to moment.  At this time, things like forgetting quickly, not seeing well, not hearing, carelessness, being socially inactive appear.  Such characteristics are the characteristics of old age.  Various physical and psychological problems appear at this age which are due to wear and tear of cells and tissues rather than any specific disease.

·       There are individual differences in the effects of ageing: The effects of aging are not the same for everyone, but there are individual differences.  In some people, the effects of aging appear early, while in others, its effects are not seen until much later.  Due to declining health condition and fear of death, some people show signs of old age early, while some people consider this time as a time of happiness after retirement and adjust themselves accordingly, which pushes their old age to some extent.  Thus the effects of aging vary from person to person.  This happens because of the hereditary qualities, social, economic conditions, educational background and lifestyle of the person.

·       Old age is judged by different criteria: Aging is difficult to define specifically.  Different people account for it in different ways.  People  usually judge this period on the basis of physical and mental activities and facial features such as facial wrinkles, grey hair, falling teeth etc.  Adults assess this age based on what they can do physically and mentally.  Similarly, this age is also  judged on various bases such as experienced age, troubled age, burdened age, useless life etc.

·       Old age is the period of role change: As people age, they typically begin to lose roles as active parents, employees, and spouses.  This often leads to feelings of losing control in life.  Older people typically have less contact with others, which causes their social networks to shrink.  They develop feelings of powerlessness, loneliness, self-alienation(आत्म वियोग)  meaninglessness etc.

·       Old age is a period of poor adjustment: The society's negative perception affects the behavior towards the elderly.  This causes them to become negative towards themselves as a result of which family and social adjustment becomes difficult.  Some even commit suicide because they are unable to adjust.  Not being able to stand on their own feet, being considered a burden and useless by the family and not being properly cared for creates a sense of poor adjustment in the elderly. The main reasons for this are loss of social prestige, rejection from adults, excessive pain etc.

·       There are specific social attitudes toward aging: Most stereotypes about aging are unfavourable, so there are many negative social attitudes about aging. The lifestyle of the elderly depends on how the society perceives them.  In many societies the elderly are considered physically, mentally and emotionally sterile.  They are considered more of a burden than an asset.  It affects their lives.  In a society that sees the elderly as a burden and useless, it is difficult for them to survive and adjust.  In a society where there is a tradition of respecting the elderly, it is easy and convenient to accommodate the elderly and lead life.

·       Old age is the period of desire for rejuvenation: Another important feature of old age is the intense desire to regain youth.  They have a strong feeling that their youth could return, they could be better and they could be young once again.  Due to this, they buy and use different types of cosmetic goods available in the market.  For example, they use products that stretch the skin of wrinkled cheeks and other parts of the body.  All these activities show that they want to see themselves as young.

·       The elderly has a minority group status/ second class citizen: Elderly are socially inactive and weak.  They are deprived of interacting with others.  Therefore, they are forced to endure injustice, oppression and abuse.  They are mostly victims of illness, loneliness etc.  Due to various problems, they cannot go out without the help of others.  They are haunted and lonely.  No one listens to them.

·       There are many stereotypes of old age: Elderly people are particularly vulnerable to negative stereotypes. The common negative stereotypes about older people include their suffering from poor health and loneliness, physical and cognitive incompetency, unproductivity and unattractiveness.

c.     Hazards of Late Adulthood/ Old Age:

Some of the  hazards that appear during old age are:

·       Physical hazards: Physical decline and disease are among the greatest hazards experienced by aging individuals.  It prevents a person from doing the things s/he enjoys or interferes with his regular activities and also limits independence. These include:

§  Diseases and physical handicaps

§  Malnutrition

§   Dental disorder

§  Sexual deprivation

§  Accidents

·       Psychological hazards: Decline in health and mental capacity makes the elderly dependent.  It can be a source of stress, depression and anxiety.  Additionally, many older adults face emotional challenges such as feelings of loneliness and isolation. Aging adults are susceptible to dementia, psychotic depression, personality changes, mood swings, aggression, and other mental health issues. Some of the emotional hazards that the old people have to face our as follows:

§  Acceptance of cultural stereotypes of the elderly

§  Effects of physical changes of aging

§  Changes in life patterns

§  Tendency to slip mentally

§  Feelings of guilt about idleness

§  Reduced income

§  Social disengagement

·       Social hazards

After retirement, their social life is often limited.  The death of spouses, friends and relatives prevents their participation in social life.  Studies show that loneliness and the fear of being separated from social circles is a big problem for them.

 

·       Vocational hazards: Elderly people cannot work physically and mentally.  They have to depend on others to live.  Following are the vocational hazards that appear during this period:

§  Prevention from working

§  Retirement

§  Family life hazards

§  Loneliness

§  Living arrangements

§  Role changes

 

 

Unit III:

Understanding Puberty                       

The word Puberty is derived from the Latin word Pubertas which means age of manhood. It  is the developmental stage between childhood and adolescence in which the asexual period ends and the sexual stage begins. In general, the period from 12-13 years to 14-15 years, when sexual maturity is achieved from a physiological point of view, is understood as puberty.  This period is a significant period of life from the point of view of growth and development of physical organs and psychological changes.

 

3.1 Developmental tasks, skills, hobby and possible hazards

3.1.1 Developmental tasks of puberty

Developmental tasks that appear in puberty are mainly as follows:

·       Gradually disappearing childhood symptoms and starting to appear the adult symptoms

·       Achieving sexual maturity and the ability to produce children.

·       Acquiring the symptoms of sexual difference as well as physical structure and appearance

·       Being aware and vigilant about own sexual role and start performing the appropriate sexual role

·       Appearing the signs of puberty such as first menstruation in girls and nocturnal emission in boys. Etc.

3.1.2  Skills development during puberty

During puberty, children develop the following skills:

·       Physical skills: Children in this period have a good physical control. Physical or motor skills such as walking, running, throwing and jumping including fine-motor skills like writing or using tools are developed.

·       Social skills: During puberty children develop social skills like ability to maintain relationship, make friends, bearing responsibility, having new experiences, using media, forming new values, dating etc. Rapport building is their main social skill.

·       Communication skills: Children's communication skills are good as they have a developed vocabulary.  They prefer to communicate through electronic gadgets rather than face-to-face communication.  It is an important tool for developing social skills.

·       Coping skills: Children during puberty have good skills to deal with emotional problem and difficult and stressful situation in their own way. They are able in self restructuring and self regulation.

·       Cognitive skills: During puberty, the growing children gain the ability to think systematically about all logical relationships within a problem. The transition from concrete thinking to formal logical operations happens over time.

3.1.3 Hobbies during puberty

Puberty children usually have the following hobbies:

·       Sleeping

·       Media /communication

·       Leisure time activities

·       Playing sports/ extra curricular activities

·       Doing homework

·       Working / voluntary activities

·       Religious activities

·       Grooming

·       Creative work etc.

3.1.4 Possible hazards in puberty

As in other periods of human development, physical as well as mental, emotional, social, moral, linguistic hazards may appear at this stage.  On the whole, the crises of this period can be studied by dividing them into the following two parts:

a.     Physical hazards: Physical hazards  can be clearly seen and felt externally.  Such hazards can be both ordinary and dire ( भयानक) in nature.  This includes the following:

·       Illness: At this age, they are seen to suffer from disturbances in digestion, stomach ache, headache, back-waist pain, laziness, and anaemia.

·       Accidents: As children at this age are more careless and mischievous, risks such as getting into a vehicle accident, falling from a tree, falling from a hill, quarreling, and getting disfigured may occur.

·       Suicide: Due to the high emotion, negativity, low self-esteem, inferiority complex and lack of social adjustment among the children of this period, they may commit suicide by hanging, consuming poisonous substances, jumping into water etc.

·       Mortality: Children of this period are more likely to die due to illness, suicide and accidents.

·       Malfunctioning of endocrine gland: During puberty, if there is an imbalance of the endocrine glands, that will lead to abnormal physical changes and maturation.  The decrease in the secretions of growth hormone from the pituitary gland can causes  dwarfism, delayed maturation, and imbalance in physical development. But if there is excess, gigantism will appear.  Similarly, an imbalance in the function of the sex glands or gonads hinders the secretion  of sexual hormones that hinders the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics.  Over secretion can cause puberty praecox (early flowering /early maturation).

b.    Psychological hazards: In puberty, psychological hazards appear along with physical hazards.  In some cases, physical hazards become the cause or source of psychological hazards.  Such hazards has long-term effects.  The psychological crisis that appears during this period can be presented as follows:

·       Uunfavourable self-concept: The rapid physical changes that occur at puberty lead to the development of negative self-concept in children.  They lose confidence and feel lonely, helpless and insecure, which leads them to face psychological problems such as being isolated from friends, being aggressive with friends, getting angry and impulsive, living in solitude, being withdrawn, and feeling inferior.  If it is not controlled in time, it can take a violent form and they can even commit major crimes.

·       Under achievement: Adolescent children have high ambitions but due to lack of dedication and hard work, they cannot achieve the expected success due to which psychological hazard is created in them. However, it is a temporary state that will pass away when this stage is over.

·       Unpreparedness for change: In the absence of adequate information about the rapid changes that occur at puberty, children find it difficult to adjust to these changes.  They become shocked and discouraged by this.  This leads to increased mental stress and psychological crisis.  In the same way, psychological crisis appears even if one cannot present one's sexual role as expected by the society.

·       Problems related to acceptance of changed body: When children of puberty cannot accept their physical changes naturally and easily, mental hazards arise.  For example: When girls get their first period, they have more mental anxiety than physical pain.  It adds to various crises and fears.  Many people even commit suicide because of not being able to control it in time.

·       Deviation in sexual maturity: When sexual maturity does not come at the right time during puberty, or comes early or late compared to other peers, children feel odd and face different mental stress.

·       Difficulty in accepting socially approved sex roles: When the children of Puberty are not able to play the sexual roles approved by the society and accept them easily, they have to face various psychological crises.  It may be difficult for them to accept social roles and behaviours without preparation for sexual maturity.

 

3.2 Causes, Criteria and Effects of Puberty

 

a. Causes of puberty:

The causes of puberty which were unknown in the past have come to light with the advancement of medical science. According to the facts revealed, sex hormone starts to release from about five years before full maturity, which causes changes in the structure and function of sex organs.  Especially the following two glands of the endocrine system in the body have a major role in this process:

·       Pituitary Gland: This is an endocrine gland located under the hypothalamus of the brain. It secretes various types of hormones that controls and stimulates the entire endocrine system of the body. During puberty, this gland produces  two types of hormones. The first one is growth hormone (GH) which determines physical growth (height and size) and the second is Gonadotropic hormone: GTH which stimulates and activates the sex glands. Pubertal changes occur when the production of these hormones is intensified. Therefore,  the pituitary gland is considered to be one of the reasons for entering puberty.

·       Gonads or sex glands: The testes in boys and the ovaries in girls play a major role in puberty.  The secretion of gonadotropic hormone from the pituitary gland activates the growth and development of the sex organs and changes their shape and size.  It brings sexual maturity in them.  In addition, it develops secondary sexual characteristics in boys and girls such as growth of beard, moustache and male body in boys and physical development in girls including breast and hip growth.  Therefore, the gonads also play an important role in puberty.

After reaching sexual maturity, this process slows down. Therefore there is a major role of the pituitary gland and the sex glands in the beginning of puberty.  In addition, genetics, food, and environment also affect the timing of puberty.

 

B. Criteria for puberty

Factors that determine puberty are called criteria of puberty.  It is also known as the base or indicator of puberty.  Various traditional and modern concepts have come up in this regard.  According to traditional beliefs, the development of the ability to produce children is considered as the criteria of puberty.  In the modern concept, various discoveries and discussions about its criteria have come to light.  Generally, the criteria or parameters of puberty can be presented as follows:

I.      The first mensuration or menarche: According to scientists, girls may start menstruating at any time from the beginning to the end of puberty, but the first menstruation in girls is considered the only basis for entering puberty.

II.   Nocturnal emission: Nocturnal emissions is the process by which the penis becomes erect and ejaculation takes place while the boys are sleeping.  This happens if more than the required amount of semen accumulates.  This sign can indicate that boys are mature and capable of becoming fathers.  But there may be time differences and some may not experience nocturnal emissions.

III.                       Chemical analysis of urine: The onset of puberty can also be detected by the chemical test of the first urine of the child after waking up in the morning.  For example: If sex hormones ( androgens in boys and estrogens in girls) are found in the urine test, it is considered that sexual maturity has arrived and puberty has begun.

IV.                       X-ray of different parts of the body: By studying X-rays of different parts of the children's body, it can be known whether they have reached sexual maturity or not.  The onset and development of puberty can be easily detected by studying the rapid physical changes that occur during puberty with X-rays of the bones of the hands and feet.

V.  Pubic hair: Pubic hair growth can also be considered as a criterion of puberty.  The initial hairs are thin and with the development of puberty, those hairs become thicker.

 

c.     Effects of puberty

Puberty changes have direct and distinct effect on physical well-being as well as in the behaviour and attitude of children. Even though these effects are temporary, which last for some time only, they may affect the pattern of behaviour, attitude and personality of individuals. Such effects can be classified into two categories as:

·       Effects on physical well being:

Changes in puberty have a direct impact on physical health and well-being.  A person needs a lot of energy for their puberty changes. The body gets more energy from regular meals.  This creates a lack of energy for other routine activities.  S/he feels fatigued, tired etc.  Digestive disturbance is another symptom that appears in this stage.  A person tends to overeat during this phase to meet the high energy requirement during this period.  However, their digestive system is not fully capable of digesting this much food. It causes digestive disturbances. Due to physical changes, people remain under stress.  It also spoils the digestive process.  Girls face problems like headache, backache, vomiting during menstruation.  Besides they also face problems like skin irritation, swelling of feet.  Because of all these influences, puberty can be considered the 'sickly period'.

·       Effects on attitude and behaviour:

Problems related to physical health and well-being adversely affect a person's attitude and behaviour. However, major influences on children's attitudes and behaviour are caused by the behaviour of society and parents towards them.  Children at this stage attain sexual maturity.  Signs of sexual maturity change society's and parents' attitudes towards them.  Due to the different changes in their body, the society generally considers them as mature people.  In fact, children only attain sexual maturity at this stage. They are far from real maturity, which is indicated by physical and psychological maturity.  It is very difficult for children to meet the expectations of parents and society.  Similarly, lack of energy for regular work turns them into underachievers.  High expectations of parents and society and lack of energy and inability to meet these expectations creates frustration in children of this age.  Society treats them with double standards.  When they act like adults, elders advise them to act according to their age.  When they behave like children, they criticize them for their childish behaviour.  All these behaviours make children unhappy.  The main effects of puberty on children's attitudes and behaviour are as follows:

I.                  Desire for isolation: When puberty begins, the children usually, withdraw from peers and family. They refuse to communicate their problems with others. Their desire for isolation increases in this stage.

II.               Boredom: Since children of this age face physical problems and problem of adjustment, they do not express in any activity. They feel excessive boredom.

III.           In-co-ordination: The children have poor adjustment with the society. Rapid and unusual development affects their general co-ordination.

IV.           Social antagonism: They develop negative attitude towards societal norms and values. They dislike social relations. They are often uncooperative.

V.              Heightened emotionality: Moodiness, temper outburst are general tendencies of children of this age level. They express heightened emotional pattern, in which reactions are more intense in comparison to the stimulus.

VI.           Loss of self-confidence: The self-confidence of children of puberty stage is completely shattered. The raising expectations of society and parents and their inability to fulfil these expectations shatter their self-confidence.

VII.       Excessive modesty: The children of this age express excessive modesty. They are very shy in nature. They feel very uncomfortable when they come in contact of others, Their concerns about the normalcy of physical changes in them turn them modest.

·       Effect of deviant maturity: Not all children reach puberty at the same age.  It has both positive and negative effects.  For example, those who seem to mature early develop positive feelings and become easy in social adjustment, but those who mature late develop negative feelings and cause obstacles in social adjustment.

3.3 Physical development: Spurt of growth during puberty

 

3.3.1 Spurt of growth during puberty

The term growth spurt refers to an occurrence of quick and sudden growth in a short period of time. At puberty, children experience rapid growth, development and change. This change occurs during mid-puberty and children gain an average of 3 inches of additional height during this period. Five to six inches of height gain during this period is not unusual.

In American society, puberty in girls begins between the ages of 8.5 and 11.5 years and peaks on average at the age of 12.5 years.  After this age, their physical development slows and stagnates until the age of 17 to 18 years.  Similarly, for boys, growth spurts begin at ages 10.5 to 14.5 and peak at ages 14.5 to 15.5.  Thereafter it gradually decreases and stabilizes at the age of 20 to 22 years.  As the growth spurt in boys continues longer, boys gain more height than girls.

 

The following factors are responsible for the rapid growth in this period:

a.     Environment

b.    Balance diet

c.      Heredity

d.    Physical exercise

e.     Physical fitness

f.       Society

g.     Family environment etc.

 

3.3.2 Physical development and changes during puberty

Physical development or changes are one of the changes that occur during puberty.  Physical changes during puberty can be studied mainly divided into four parts which are as follows:

·       Change in Size: With the onset of puberty, there is a significant increase in height and weight of children due to the growth hormone produced by the pituitary gland. Girls gain up to 5 inches height growth for 2 years before they start menarche. In the first year after the onset of menstruation, the height increases by 3-6 inches. Height increases at a rate of 2.5 to 5.5 inches from the second year for two years. The rate of growth gradually decreases and stops after the age of 18.  Similarly boys' height growth peak in the period of 11-16 years. After that, it starts to decrease. Height growth in boys continues till 20/21 years. During puberty, the weight of children also increases significantly. There is an increase in weight especially due to the increase in the size of muscles and bones, fat accumulated in the stomach, chest, hips, thighs, cheeks and bellies.

·       Change in body proportion: During puberty, there is also a change in the growth ratio of different parts of the body. However, the growth rate of different parts of the body is different. The head to body ratio is 1/4 at birth and 1/6 at puberty.  In childhood, the heart is relatively small and the vessels are large, but in puberty, the vessels are small and the heart is large.  At this stage, the face looks long compared to the previous stage.  An increase in the width of the shoulders of boys and the hips of girls appear.  Early maturing children have relatively short limbs. In puberty, the neck is longer and the shoulder is wider than in childhood.  Prepubescent girls have smaller hips than prepubescent boys.  Similarly, late maturing boys have smaller hips than late maturing girls. In the same way, the limbs of children who mature quickly look short and strong, while those who mature late are thin and long.

·       Primary sex characteristics: During puberty, the primary sex organs develop and change in shape.  In boys the testicles are only 10% developed by the age of 13/14 years and fully mature by 20-21 years.  During this time, due to the influence of sex hormones, the length and width of the penis develop rapidly, and they experience nocturnal emission.  Similarly, girls' primary sex organs such as the uterus and vagina increase in size.  Generally, at the age of 11/12-16 years, girls experience the first menstruation as a sexual indicator due to the rapid growth of the uterus and ovaries. It reaches full maturity at the age of 17/18 years.

·       Secondary sex characteristics: With entering puberty, secondary sexual characteristics also begin to develop in children. For example, in boys, mustaches, beards, armpits, and pubic hair appear, and in girls, waists grow, breasts begin to swell, and armpits and pubic hair appear.  In addition, their skin glands become active, muscles grow, hair appears in the skin, voice changes, etc.

 

3.4 Social Development, Entertainment and Recreation

 

a.    Social development / changes in social behaviour during puberty

The behaviour shown by the pubertal children according to the values, beliefs, ideals and culture of the respective society is called the social behaviour of puberty. Children's social behaviour at puberty is largely influenced by biological changes in them.  These changes not only change them from asexual to sexual, but also change their responsibilities and expectations. Society expects them to adopt social roles or behaviours similar to other adults or mature individuals, which is natural to some extent. But despite the biological maturity of young people, due to lack of experience and intellectual capacity, they cannot show the role as expected by the society. As a result, their behaviour is criticized in every area.

 On the one hand, not being able to easily accept physical changes and on the other hand, regular and constant criticism of the society, they become fed up.  It leads them to show negative behaviour such as less participation in social activities, living alone, shyness, less like to talk, criticizing the customs of the society, acting contrary to social values etc.  They also develop social antagonism and tend to be detached from social contacts. They express irritating behaviour because of dissatisfaction towards the people around them and also with themselves. If parents and guardians do not understand all this and try to control them more in the name of making them mature and disciplined, then it is not acceptable to them.  Because of this, the relationship between parents and children also becomes negative.

 

Pubertal children expect society to treat them like adults and give them the opportunity to participate in social activities accordingly.  But when the society does not trust them, they do not get that role and responsibility.  As a result, they seem worried.  Since most of their body's energy is consumed in biological changes, they look lazy, weak and powerless.  This directly and indirectly affects their social behaviour.  Therefore, the society should advance their behaviour sympathetically and provide controlled freedom.

 

b.    Entertainment and Recreation during Puberty

Pubertal children get their entertainment and recreation through the following activities:

·       Games and sports

·       Relaxation

·       Travelling

·       Dancing

·       Movies

·       Music

·       Electronic gadget like television, mobile, computer etc.

 

3.5 Emotional Development and Its Effects

Boys and girls experience different emotions as they go through puberty. Their emotions may become stronger and more intense. Such emotions are often related to their sexuality, physical changes, adjustments etc.  But at the end of puberty, they gradually disappear.  Some such emotional changes are discussed here:

·       Feeling over-sensitive: It is normal for children to feel insecure about themselves and over-sensitive about their physical appearance as their bodies go through a lot of changes during puberty.  As a result, they may get angry easily, lose their temper or feel depressed.

·       Looking for identity: Since the children in puberty are in the process of becoming an adult, they may feel inclined to figure out what makes them unique as a person. They want to associate more with their friends than their family members. Psychologically, it may be because their friends are going through a similar phase like them. They may try to show how they are different from others and how they fit into the world. It leads them to struggle to become more independent.

·       Feeling Uncertain: In adolescence children are neither fully adults nor children.  As a transition phase, they start thinking about new and unfamiliar aspects of life such as career, livelihood and marriage.  When they start thinking in these directions, they may feel uncertain about the future.  This process takes time depending on how they react to the situation.

·       Peer pressure: With the onset of puberty, children's interactions with peers increase.  They are likely to be influenced by their peer group, popular media or what they see around them.  Their behaviour is often shaped by the way how friends dress, speak and what they see.  This can lead to make changes in their likes and dislikes.

·       Conflict of thoughts: The confusion and indecision experienced by pubertal children during transition can sometimes turn into a conflict of interest.  As they are somewhere between childhood and adulthood, they may feel stuck between how they were as a child and how they want to be as an adult.  For example, they may want to be more independent and, at the same time, seek support from their parents.  As a result they may feel conflicted and seek clarity.

·       Mood swings: Mood swings are common among teenagers. Due to the hormonal changes in their bodies, their feelings and emotions are  found changing. They seem relaxed and reasonable at one moment and may lose her temper the next. They may be irritable, easily excitable, and overly emotional. They may cry for hours on what might seem like a silly issue, and get excited about something that an adult may find annoying.

·       Feeling conscious about self: The onset of puberty can vary from person to person.  It can make them body conscious.  These experiences are more pronounced for girls than for boys because they develop faster than boys.  Changes in their body like breast development and buttock widening are more visible.  This can make them feel more self-conscious about their bodies in the presence of peers of the same age group.

·       Sexual feelings and gender-specific mannerisms: Due to sexual maturity, puberts become curious about sex and  bodies of people that they are attracted to. They may have many questions about sex. They become sexually attracted to people that they would want to be more than 'just friends' with. They may also feel sexually excited by normal everyday activities such as reading a romantic novel or watching a romantic scene on television. However these feelings are normal and there is nothing to feel guilty about.

3.6 Happiness and Unhappiness during Puberty

Happiness is a state of mind or a mood. It is a subjective matter. The cause of happiness of each individual differs from others. Being happy and unhappy depends upon the personal interpretations of individuals. The same experience makes some people happier than others.

Different studies have shown that people feel more happier at certain ages and sadder at another ages. In fact, physical and mental balance is the source of achieving happiness. In the course of human development, babyhood is considered as the happiest and puberty as the saddest period. There are three determinants of happiness. Based on these determinants the happiness or unhappiness of an individual can be predicted. These determinants are called as three A's of happiness which briefly discussed below:

·       Achievement: As the age of a person increases, he should be able to get various achievements. But pubertal children fail to do so because of physical distress, lack of strength and reduction in digestion followed by rapid physical changes. They do not become able to work harder. When they can't do as much as they should, they remain  underachievers. It leads to  dissatisfaction which causes unhappiness in them. They like to participate in various activities. They want to achieve good results from there but are unhappy when the results are not as expected. In contrary, they feel happy when family, friends and society provide support, praise and encouragement to them to achieve better.

·       Acceptance: Pubertal children need self-acceptance and social acceptance to be happy. They want everyone to say good things about their physical appearance, color, and behavior, and if they don't, they feel sad. But If they and their behaviours are positively accepted by himself or others, they feel happy.

·       Affection: During childhood, children are loved more by their parents, family members, teachers, relatives and neighbors.  But after entering puberty, they become sad because the love and affection they get is transferred to their younger siblings.  They feel that their importance is diminishing.  This makes them feel helpless and think that their happiness is over. In this situation, parents and teachers have to play a special role to develop their right personality.  The  families, teachers and society need to  create a sympathetic, caring, loving and supportive environment without putting undue pressure on them to control their unhappiness.

In conclusion it can be said that happy people are more successful than unhappy people at both work and love. Pubertal people are usually happier when they’re satisfied with their lives and relationships, although nobody is happy all the time. They can be happy when some things make their wellbeing up. One can boost child’s happiness with praise and encouragement, clear rules and boundaries, a healthy family lifestyle and warm family relationships. Praise, encouragement and positive attention let the child know that we value them, their good deeds and their contribution to our life. Therefore we should praise the children when they do things like helping out, doing chores or getting their homework done. we should provide them with attention. For example, going to watch them playing sport, sending  them a friendly text message, or just giving them a special smile or hug. Besides by encouraging them to try new things,  valuing their strengths, letting the child know that we’re proud of them when they try, and praising them for who they are will also help them feel good about themselves.

 

3.7 Ways of Controlling Unhappiness

There is no problem that does not have a solution.  The unhappiness and restlessness seen in youth can be reduced or eliminated psychologically.  Their unhappiness can be reduced by controlling and addressing the factors that lead to unhappiness in adolescence.  The following measures may be effective for this:

·       Parents and teachers should treat them like friends

·       The concerned party should give them proper advice and guide them in the right direction

·       Their appearance, color, physical structure, behavior should be made acceptable without having a negative view

·       Encouragement and empathy should be prioritized over punishment

·       Their legitimate concerns and problems should be addressed in time

·       Their activities should be considered naive (नादान) and temporary and ignored

·       They should be made aware of social values, beliefs and ideals and guided to behave accordingly.

·       Help, support and encouragement should be provided in their attainment

·       They should be given the necessary love and affection

·       They should be praised for their work and encouraged to do good work

·       They should be provided with the necessary support in social adjustment

·       Parents and teachers should not expect too much from them, but expect them to achieve according to their age

·       The concerned parties should create an environment where they can achieve the 3 'As' etc.

 

3.8 Educational Implications of Puberty

Based on the study of the characteristics, interests, concerns, problems, etc. of puberty, the educational implications for this time can be as follows:

·       Sex education should be given in schools so that children can behave liberally and equitably towards the opposite sex and stay away from any form of sexual misconducts.

·       The teacher should play the role of friend and mentor for them.

·       Provision of moral education should be made for their good character and  moral development

·       They need the right environment to develop their balanced emotions and instincts so that they don't feel alone.

·       Practical, vocational or career-oriented education should be arranged for them.

·       Education according to individual differences and aptitude should be provided.

·       Curriculum should be prepared in harmony with the feelings, emotions and interests of the children who are at puberty.

·       The textbook should be helpful in solving the practical problems they face due to rapid changes.

 

 

Unit IV

Adolescence and Developmental Characteristics    

Adolescence is an important stage in human life.  The word Adolescence comes from the Greek word "Adolescere" which means "to grow to maturity". Generally, the period of life from 12 to 18/19 years where children are progressing physically, mentally, socially and emotionally from childhood to mature adult is called adolescence. There are different viewpoints regarding the age of adolescence.  This period is further divided into early adolescence (13-16/17 years) and late adolescence: 17-18/19 years.

 

4.1 Developmental tasks, skills, hobbies and potent hazards

 

4.4.1 Developmental tasks in Adolescence

During this period, along with sexual maturity in children, physical development also takes place at a rapid pace.  However, the development of intellectual abilities does not happen at the same speed, which makes them unable to make quick decisions, confused and discouraged.  They have to deal with problems especially related to emotional, moral and social aspects.  Besides they also start performing tasks as expected by the family and society.  Children of this period want to make themselves independent. On the whole, the developmental activities that take place during this period can be presented as follows:

·       They want to make themselves mature by expanding their relationship with new and mature people

·       Besides being attracted towards social values, they make themselves active by participating in various social activities

·       They focus on making their body attractive and fit

·       Due to the increase in physical strength, various emotional reactions such as fights, beatings and even violent protests against minor mistakes are observed.

·       A sense of independence (desire to do something by oneself) develops.

·       They focus on making money and hence want to take up a profession or business

·       They prepare for family and married life etc.

 

4.1.2 Skills and Hobbies during Adolescence

a. Skill development during adolescence

Adolescence is  a turning point in one's life. It is a period of increased potential and a time of various skill development. The skills that are developed during this period can be briefly described as follows:

·       Self awareness: Adolescents have the ability to  know one's strengths, weakness, drives, values and its impact on others which is called self-awareness.  It helps them in self-growth and future development and to improve their performance in academic and future productive work.

·       Empathy: During adolescence the ability to understand the emotions of other persons develops. They learn to understand and care about other peoples' needs, desires and feelings. it is called empathy. It is helpful for adolescents to improve their social interactions.

·       Critical thinking: Critical thinking is the ability to objectively analyze information and experiences.  Adolescent children try to critically understand things and events rather than accepting them as they are.  This helps them identify and evaluate factors that influence attitudes and behavior.

·       Creativity: Creativity is also strongly developed during adolescence.  They have a new way of seeing or doing things.  In other words, they have the ability to generate new ideas, the flexibility to change the perspective easily, and to create new concepts and original ideas.

·       Decision making: Adolescents have developed the ability to make decisions by evaluating the various options available to them. They are also able to consider the implications of these  decisions. It is a skill that can help them deal creatively with different aspects of their lives.

·       Problem Solving: Adolescence have the ability to look at different options objectively and weigh the pros and cons of the various options available.  They’re better able to identify problems, think deeply and logically and make good decisions on their own which is essential for sorting out the conflicts.

·       Interpersonal relationship skills: Adolescents are able to relate to people in their daily lives in a positive way.  They are able to form and maintain friendships, maintain good relationships and connections with family members who are an important source of social support, and even end relationships constructively.

·       Effective communication skills: An important skill to develop during adolescence is the ability to express oneself, both verbally and non-verbally.  They are able to express their opinions, wishes, needs and fears in culturally and situationally appropriate ways and to ask for advice and help in times of need.

·       Coping skills: This is an important life skill to develop during adolescence.  They are able to identify sources of stress in their lives and diagnose how it affects them.  They are able to identify, learn and use positive coping styles and mechanisms to help manage stress levels.  This includes changing the environment or lifestyle and learning how to relax. In addition, they are also able to recognize emotions in themselves and others, to be aware of how emotions influence behavior, and to respond appropriately to those emotions.

B. Hobbies during adolescence

As teenagers have an inquisitive mind, they are always eager to learn new things.  They have different hobbies.  Hobbies are a form of creative self-expression that helps children avoid boredom and make better use of free time.  It also helps develop new skills and a healthy body and mind.  Sometimes these hobbies can be life-defining moments for them.  Below are some of the hobbies that develop at this age:

·       Cooking,

·       Hiking,

·        Playing musical instrument,

·       Blogging,

·       Painting,

·       Hair styling,

·        Knitting

·       Fashion

·        Reading books,

·       Photography,

·       Skating,

·        Learning makeup,

·        Singing,

·        Volunteering,

·       Bird watching,

·       Playing online games,

·        Joining a club,

·       Acting,

·       Making pen pals,

·       Playing sports etc.

 

C.  Potent Hazards during Adolescence

As in other periods of development, various physical and mental hazards appear in adolescence. However, psychological hazard is more common in them compared to physical hazard.

a.     Physical hazards: The physical problems that occur in adolescence are mainly the following:

·       Illness and mortality: Although this age is not the age for getting sick, children rarely suffer from problems like stomach ache, diarrhea, dysentery etc. due to imbalance in diet. In girls, lower abdominal pain may also occur during menstruation. The death due to vehicle accident is more than illness.

·       Suicide: Adolescent suicide rate is increasing these days.  The reasons for this are high emotions, social pressure, failure and frustration.

·       Accidents: Due to developmental and social factors, such as time spent without adult supervision, heightened emotion, carelessness, and increased independence, adolescents are more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviors than younger children or adults.  Boys in particular are at high risk of accidents and injuries that can lead to disability and even death.

·       Sex inappropriate body structure: Adolescence is a period of rapid growth and development.  But in some cases, when the height of the children is too short or too high according to their age, and when they are thin or fat, they are teased by their friends and it makes them difficult to adjust in the group. It also causes a feeling of awkwardness in them.

·       Week body strength: Girls of this age have less physical strength than boys. This causes difficulty for them to participate in sports and social activities as a result their self concept and social adjustment hampers.

B. Psychological hazards: The influence of social behavior and family environment on adolescent mental activity is studied under psychological threats.  Psychological dangers seen in adolescence can be mentioned as follows:

·       Hazards related to social behaviour: Adolescents may behave differently from society's expectations. They may have religious, ethnic and socio-economic biases. They may express behaviors such as arrogance, over-showing, teasing and criticizing. The immature behavior they exhibit among peer groups can lead to adjustment problems. If there is a lack of guidance and suggestions, they may fall into a various psychological problem.

·       Hazards related to sexual behaviour: Due to immaturity in sexual behavior, adolescent children may face various psychological problems. Attraction to the opposite sex, love affair, early marriage, unprotected sex, unwanted pregnancy, break-up etc. can cause psychological problems like anxiety, stress and depression in them. Besides, not being able to fulfill the socially approved sex role can also cause psychological problems.

·       Moral hazards: Adolescents have not yet developed the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Teenagers try to build their own value system by critically understanding the society's values, principles, ideas.  But due to immaturity, they end up doing anti-social things like theft, drug addiction, crime, fraud, rape etc. The unintended consequences that may arise from this may lead to psychological problems in them.

·       Family relationship hazards: Bad family environment is also a major cause of psychological distress in teenagers. In families where there is lack of finances, family disharmony, quarrels, discrimination and beatings by step parents, children suffer from mental problems. Children who grow up in bad family relationships and broken homes become insecure and this affects their personality development.

 

 

4.2   Physical Characteristics and Educational Implication

 

4.2.1 Physical Characteristics in Adolescence

As adolescence is the age of achieving physical and sexual maturity, physical changes are complete and evident during this period. Although full physical maturity is not reached in early adolescence, both internal and external development of the body becomes complete after reaching late adolescence. There is complete development in the shape of the brain too in this time. The characteristics of various physical changes occurring during this period can be presented as follows:

a.     External changes

·       Height: Girls attain mature height by 17-18 years. Rapid height growth in boys occurs 1-2 years later than girls. Average boys reach maturity at the age of 19 to 20-21 years. Boys attain more Heights than girls do. However, the nutritional and health status during childhood influences their height development.

·       Weight: It is natural to increase the weight along with height development during adolescence.  This is due to the growth of bones and fat.  But stress, malnutrition, overwork and anxiety can influence weight gain.

·       Body proportion: Along with the growth of physical organs, different parts of the body develop and mature proportionally during adolescence. Such as chest becomes strong and wide, arms look strong, butt becomes thick and wider etc.

·       Sex organs: During this period, the sexual organs of boys and girls attain mature shape and size and weight. But functionally, they may be immature for a few more years.

·       Secondary sex organs: The development of secondary sexual characteristics that begins to develop with the onset of puberty is almost complete by late adolescence. For example, in boys, beards and moustaches, pubic, armpit, and chest hair, develops and in girls breast growth, widening of hip, smooth skin, and pubic hair appear.

b.    Internal changes

·       Digestive system: The muscles of the stomach and intestines of teenagers become stronger and also increase in length. The walls of the intestines become strong and thick, while the liver and other organs involved in digestion become fully functional. Along with increase in appetite, digestion process becomes better.

·       Respiratory system: The size of the lungs becomes larger and  becomes fully functional.  The development of the respiratory system is faster in girls than in boys.  By the age of 17, the respiratory system of girls is fully developed, while that of boys is fully developed only after some time.

·       Circulatory system: During adolescence, the heart grows rapidly.  It accelerates  specially during the period of 17-18 years.  It weighs 12 times more than at birth.  Besides the length, weight and beat of the heart also increases.

·       Endocrine system: The endocrine system is activated which stimulates the pituitary and gonads.  As a result, it increases the secretion of growth and sex hormones that determine height and help the sexual organs to mature functionally.

·       Musculo-skeletal system: The bones of the body grow and become stronger.  The development of muscles makes the body strong and beautiful.

·       Brain: Like the heart and lungs, the brain also develops rapidly during adolescence.  A 10-year-old child's body weight is 50 percent less than that of an adult, and the brain is only 5 percent less.  This shows that the brain is fully developed by the end of adolescence.

4.2.2 Educational Implication of Physical Changes during Adolescence

The educational implications of the physical changes of adolescence can be mentioned as follows:

§  Adolescent needs and developmental characteristics are highly interrelated.  Therefore, parents and teachers should understand the needs of teenagers and provide suitable environment and opportunities accordingly.  Otherwise, if they are not able to get satisfaction from their needs, they may become frustrated.

§  Educational objectives and curriculum should be designed according to the actual needs and nature of adolescents.

§  It is important for parents and teachers to understand what to expect from teenagers, what kind of environmental opportunities to provide. It will guide them on how to develop good social skills and other necessary positive skills in accordance with societal expectations.

§  The knowledge of physical characteristics should be used to make teenagers aware of the stage they are entering and the role they should play.

§  Their growing physical strength and unpleasant emotional changes in them  should be managed by providing opportunity to play games and other various kinds of creative work

§  Teachers and parents should play the role of a guide and counselor for proper social and moral development in them

§  The teachers should create balance between the physical and psychological needs of adolescents.

§  The teachers should utilize this knowledge in creating  better learning environment and providing adequate learning opportunities for them.

§  The academicians should understand this fact in creating appropriate curriculum according to the real needs of adolescents..

§  The courage they show as a result of physical changes can be channelled into learning good skills and other high-level learning etc.

 

4.3 Social Characteristics, Leadership and Educational Implication

a. Social characteristics development during adolescence

Human social development starts from infancy.  Social changes that develop at every stage of life take place in different ways.  After reaching the adolescent stage, the social groups that have been developing since childhood change and they start choosing their leaders, choosing friends and forming groups based on new values ​​and beliefs.  Achieving social adjustment is one of the most important and difficult developmental tasks during adolescence.  Adolescents have to prepare and adjust themselves to the changed social roles.  They have to take on new responsibilities.  Society does not accept childish behaviour at this stage.  They must develop a new mode of relationship with their family, community and age peers.  They must acquire adult patterns of socialization. Genetic and environmental aspects have a significant influence on the social changes of adolescence, while individual differences, peer circle, education level etc. also play a role in the development of social behaviour and activities.  The characteristics of social behaviour that appear in adolescence can be mentioned as follows:

·       Increased peer group influence: Adolescent children spend more time outside the home with their peers than at home. In  this age, the influence of the peer group is more, as a result, their speech, interest, behavior, food and clothing style, values, etc. are seen similar to their peers. They learn social or antisocial behaviors due to peer influence. Therefore, parents and guardians should be very careful about their children's friends or company at this time.

·       Change in social behaviour: After reaching sexual maturity, adolescents want to adjust to a particular group different from their previous childhood group. Until early adolescence, children are more associated with same-sex groups, while from late adolescence, their inclination towards the opposite sex increases. At this time, there is a change in attitude, behavior and interest towards the society. The volatile and diverse interests and behaviors of childhood are controlled and cultivated. They prefer to engage in social work. There is good empathy among all kinds of people from different castes, religions, socio-economic backgrounds. They do not want to be directed by adults but expect friendly and equal behavior from adults. Family situation and environment, school etc. influence their social outlook. Children brought up in a good and suitable environment are liberal and broad-minded, but children brought up in a bigoted and superstitious environment are narrow-minded.

·       New values in selection of friends: During this period, a new value appears in the choice of friends of teenagers.  They choose a group of friends who understand them, give them a sense of security, have similar interests and recognition.

·       New social grouping: During adolescence, childhood friends gradually disappear and end completely by early adolescence.  After that, the formation of new social groups begins.  Adolescents form different groups like study group, sports group, social work group, anti-social work group etc.  Friends in different groups are also different.

·       New values in selection of leaders: Adolescent children become members of various groups such as study groups, sports groups, dance groups, social activity groups, political groups, etc.  They want to choose a person who is admirable, has attractive physique and figure, well dressed, respecting others, highly intelligent, helpful, highly educated, mature, lovely as their leader.

·       New values in social acceptance: The standards of social acceptance of teenagers are based on the standards of the group.  Their behavior and activities are guided and directed by their peer group.

 

B. Leadership during adolescence

The meaning of the word 'leadership' may differ among scholars.  In a gist, it can be defined as the ability of an individual or a group of individuals to influence and guide others. Various studies conducted on leadership focus only on adulthood leadership. Leadership skills are developed in children from an early age and by the time they reach adolescence, they are also capable of taking leadership.

 Adolescence is an important time for leadership development.  Growing leadership in adolescence can strengthen self-esteem and be a catalyst for thriving adulthood. Secondary school students have the ability to develop leadership skills through participation in many youth leadership organizations at school and/or community activities such as decision-making, getting along with others, learning self-organization, self-awareness, and working with groups. Some of the leadership skills develop during adolescence are:

·       They show impressive manner in front of others

·       They articulate a clear vision

·       They have self-confidence, strong communication and management skills,

·        They exhibit creative and innovative thinking

·       They are good at taking responsibility and adjusting as needed

·        They show perseverance in the face of failure

·       They have willingness to take risks

·       They show openness etc.

In conclusion, adolescence is the time to develop leadership qualities.  Since environmental compatibility and opportunities have a direct impact on the development of leadership qualities, teachers and parents should create an environment that is conducive to the development of their leadership qualities and provide them with sufficient practice opportunities as needed.

 

C. Implications of Social Development and Leadership

Schools, teachers and parents can have following implications of the social and leadership development skills that appear in adolescence:

- Adolescents should have opportunities to build affirming and healthy relationships with peers and others for their social growth. 

- Teachers should understand the importance of peer relationships and friendships and provide opportunities for positive peer interactions.

 - Teachers should design cooperative learning activities and collaborative experiences to help young adolescents interact productively with peers. 

- Teachers should also plan activities that engage students in reasoning or debate in academic settings, as well as activities that simulate social situations through role-play or simulations.

-  Schools should  play a key role in providing young adolescents with educational programs that promote independence and freedom in a safe environment.

 - Organizational structures such as teaming and service-learning are positive spaces for the growth of young adolescents.

  -Schools must ensure young teens have access to student government, service clubs, or other leadership groups that allow them to develop their own projects and guidelines for behaviour.

- They should be inspired to participate in group activities in and out of the classroom.

- The school should help young teens acquire socially desirable habits and attitudes.

- Education should develop in the student useful knowledge, skills, and habits for successful and effective social living.

- Books are not enough at this age.  Hence the teacher should bring out the social and cultural implications of the various subjects taught in the classroom etc.

 

4.4 Emotional characteristics and educational implications

a. Emotional characteristics in adolescence

The word emotion has been derived from the Latin word 'emovere' which has mean "to move out". According to P.T. Young, "Emotion is an acute disturbance of the individual as  a whole, psychological in origin, involving behavior, conscious experience and viceral functioning.” The inborn qualities such as kindness, love, compassion, pain, joy, fear, greed, infatuation, etc. are the examples of human emotions.

Adolescence is considered as a period of storm and stress due to high emotion. A variety of emotional characteristics appear at this period. The important emotional characteristics that appear in adolescence are as follows:

·       Complexity: During adolescence, children experience many emotional storms.  Understanding of their emotion is very complex.  We can’t understand them by their outward emotional expression.  They  tend to hide their true emotional experiences.

·        Development of abstract emotion: During childhood kids express their emotional feelings only in the background of concrete objects or situations. But adolescents are able to express their emotional feelings in an abstract background. They are happy or worried about the memories of past and possible future events.

·       Expansion of emotion: The emotional development that starts with the family, expands to the neighbourhood to friends, school and social circle until adolescence.  Their emotional feelings are not limited only between themselves and their families, but are related to the behaviour of peers, school environment, teacher's activities and social values, religious rituals and ethnic traditions etc.

·       Realism in emotional experiences: After entering adolescence, children reach the world of reality.  They start imitating and following the people they come in contact with.  They can perceive and appreciate people around him. They are able to recognize the weakness and strength of one's character. They compare their own behaviour with the behaviour of others and change accordingly.

·       Level of Aspirations: Adolescence is the age of having many hopes and aspirations about the present and the future.  Only a few teenagers achieve the level of success they aspire to.  Many teenagers are only immersed in imagination without understanding their real potential and external environmental conditions.  Some of their aspirations are impossible.  Most of the teenagers who do not get a suitable environment and adequate advice and encouragement are more engrossed in sweet daydreaming than in performance.

·       Tendency of aloneness: Teenagers are more fond of solitude.  They enjoy spending hours in solitude, lost in imagination.  Sometimes teenagers wish they could live alone at home.

·       Bearing of tensions: Adolescents develop the ability to bear various social stresses.  They put a lot of emphasis on self-control.  They are also able to control stress and show alternative behavior according to the needs of the society.  Likewise, they also feel inner freedom in controlling their emotions in their own way.

·       Capacity of sharing emotions: Adolescents are able to understand the pain and happiness of others and share their happiness and sorrow. They develop a concern for the feelings of others and attach themselves to the other person in such a way that the other person's satisfaction is as important as their own.

·       Development of ego:  Ego development is the main cause of  heightened emotion  in adolescence.  Teenagers consider themselves capable and worthy in every field.   When they don't get the results they want, they get stressed.

·       Growing Compassion (करुणा) :- The sense of compassion is also highly developed during adolescence.  This enables them to attain the highest peak and deepest reach in their pursuit of self-fulfillment.  They are kind and able to appreciate the feelings of others.

b.    Causes of high emotionality in adolescence

The reasons for high emotionality in adolescence can be mentioned as follows::

·       Role changes: Adolescents are confused by the changes in their roles at home, school, and society.  As they move from dependent to independent roles, their responsibility increases that leads them to emotional turmoil.

·       Parental attitude: Friction comes when parents still treat them as children.

·       High expectations:  High expectations from the parents, the community and the society contribute to emotional disturbance in them.

·       Relationship with opposite sex :  Difficulty to adjust with the members of opposite sex creates emotional tensions in adolescents.

·       Controversies: Political, religious, and social controversies give rise to conflicts in the minds of the adolescents.

·       Failure: Failure to achieve the desired success at school, life and love affair heightens their emotionality. It may sometimes result in running from homes and even committing suicide.

·       Rigidity/ strictness: Too strict discipline and lack of understanding from family, teachers and friends are sources of emotional disturbance in teenagers.

·       Uncertainty: Uncertain future prospects after completing schooling disturb the minds of teenagers.

c.     Educational implications of emotional characteristics

Adolescents' emotions are often intense, uncontrolled and seemingly irrational. However, they generally start improving with each passing year. Such emotions have both positive and negative effects on them. It can both organize and disrupt the lives of them. Considering these facts, schools, teachers and parents can have following implications of the emotional development that appear in adolescence:

§  For the balanced development of teenagers' emotions, it is necessary to adopt measures to enhance a rational and positive attitude and control socially unacceptable emotions.

§  Parents, teachers and social workers should create self-confidence in adolescents using various training methods.  They should emphasize interpersonal relationships in facilitating learning.

§  Teachers and parents should encourage teenagers to find the reasons for their failures and frustrations and develop resistance as needed.

§  Adolescence is a time when a person is overwhelmed by many developments simultaneously.  During this period proper guidance and counselling is necessary to adjust.

§  Parents and teachers should provide a suitable environment for the expression of emotions.  Adolescents should be given reasonable treatment, sympathy, cooperation and freedom of action within reasonable limits.  Unnecessary restrictions should not be imposed on them.  A variety of interests should be developed to avoid frustration.

§  Most of the problems of adolescence centre around sex. Therefore there should be provision of sex education to them.

§  Schools need to organize various cooperative activities such as group games, picnic, group discussions, debates, and plays to develop a positive spirit in them.

§  Parents and teachers should develop maturity in adolescents by imparting life arts and skills, providing the right school or home environment, managing various opportunities to participate in responsible activities, encouraging them to express their feelings and providing self-control training.

 

4.5 Mental characteristics and educational implications

Although no developmental stage is considered as the age of complete mental development, psychologists argue that mental development is generally completed during adolescence. According to psychologist Jean Piaget, adolescence is  the stage of formal operation. Therefore, in children of this stage, the ability to generalize facts, identify, understand and solve problems with the help of imagination and logic, remember previous events, express feelings, give contextual decisions, evaluate moral values etc. develop.

a.    Mental characteristics development in adolescence

Although person's mental abilities are more related to genetics, the environment is responsible for the qualitative and quantitative development of those qualities. According to psychologist Cattel, both biological and social aspects are equally responsible for mental development. The characteristics of mental development that appear during adolescence can be stated as follows:

I.                  Development of ability to understand: There is a significant increase in depth of understanding in adolescent children.  Because of this, they are often able to solve complex and difficult problems.

II.               Increase in ability to deal with abstract things: The development of emotional and abstract thinking in adolescents is not a sudden development but a result of gradual improvement.  The development of understanding and communication skills in them is considered important for intellectual development.  They can analyze the content emotionally.  In addition to concrete objects, they can also understand the situation symbolically.

III.           Increase in ability to generalise facts: In childhood, mental development takes place at the direct and perceptual level, i.e. they learn things through seeing, touching, and sensing.  But during adolescence, the ability to generalize develops at the conceptual level. Now, they are able to generalize things abstractly.

IV.           Development of problem solving capacity: Adolescent children have developed problem-solving skills.  They can solve problems with the help of clues.  They are able to think and analyze emotional content as well.  They are active in thinking and solving national and international problems.  Adolescents also develop the ability to understand and identify problems, understand their depth, develop insight and arrive at solutions through learning transfer.

V.              Development of ability to make decisions: Adolescents have developed the ability to think about the future life.  They become more aware of the difference between reality and fantasy, as well as identifying and correcting their shortcomings.   They have to make many difficult decisions, including decisions about careers, sexuality, school involvement, and risk behaviors.  Choices made at this time have the power to influence many aspects of a their future.

VI.           Development of memory and imagination: During adolescence, there is a significant increase in vocabulary as well as memory.  Adolescents can imagine past and future situations.They can retain facts for a long time.  They are able to anticipate (forecast)  future plans and make plans accordingly.  They are careful in remembering past historical events.  Likewise, a clear perception of time is also developed during this period.

VII.       Development of language and communication skills: Adolescence is the period when a person's language development is complete.  They know how to pronounce correctly, use grammar correctly, and use appropriate language for description.  Since the development of communication is at a rapid pace, they are seen debating for hours about their interests and desires, especially in the streets, tea shops, hot bazaars, public rest areas etc.  They can use appropriate language with more mature and respected people, friends, and younger siblings.

VIII.    Increment in reasoning capacity: The reasoning power of teenagers increases.  They start to guess what causes the problems or what are the reasons behind the problems.  They can not only present rational reasons but also exchange ideas on any subject.  At this stage they very much prefer to engage in discussion.

IX.            Development of ego: Ego development can be considered as an important feature of mental development in adolescence.  As teenagers enter the wider world, their mental horizons also expand.  Their aspiration level also starts to increase.  They start showing their ability and courage in any complex tasks.  They begin to focus most of their behaviors on their own well-being and entertainment.  Likewise, they do not hesitate to challenge any actions that are against their interests.

 

b.    Educational implications of mental development/ characteristics

A study of the characteristics of adolescent mental development provides clear information about the nature of mental growth and development.  It provides guidelines for effective teaching as well as solving problems in the field of mental development.  The educational implications of mental characteristics or development can be expressed as follows:

§  Schools should create a conducive environment for the balanced mental development of adolescents.  Schools should provide a well-equipped library, laboratories, opportunities for free discussion and community service.  The needs of teenagers should also be given a proper place in the school curriculum.

§  The concerned body should support the development of creative potential of adolescents through music, art and other extracurricular activities.  They should be encouraged towards diverse independent thinking styles.  Teachers should present themselves as role models and help teenagers develop a positive outlook on life.

§  Adolescents are overwhelmed by sexual problems.  Therefore, sexual and moral education should be provided to develop a positive attitude towards the opposite sex.

§  Adolescents should be provided periodic guidance and counseling regarding their personal, academic and professional problems.

§  School curriculum should be prepared keeping in mind the characteristics of mental development of adolescents etc.

 

4.6  Morality during adolescence and educational implication

a. Morality during adolescence Human morality is necessary to promote the well-being and autonomy (rights) of everyone in the world. It refers to the way of living one's life according to a set of guidelines or principles. It is the quality of deciding and acting based on right or wrong and good or bad. As adolescents' cognitive, emotional, and social development continue to mature, their understanding of morality expands and they are able to reason on a higher plane by acquiring a formal level of cognitive ability and apply and demonstrate these guiding principles in everyday life.

 Teenagers have to make a variety of moral decisions every day.  When children are young, their family, culture, and religion greatly influence their moral decisions.  Peer pressure has a strong influence on this during early adolescence.  But when they develop the ability to think abstractly, they realize that these rules are made by other people.  As a result, teenagers begin to question parents, schools, government and other traditional institutions. In late adolescence, most teens become less rebellious as they begin to establish their own identity and belief system and their own place in the world. Unfortunately, in some teenagers, bad and traumatic life experiences, unjust and unfair social behaviour, bad parenting, immoral decisions of adults etc. can affect their moral development.

Adolescents are receptive to their culture and the models they see at home, school, and mass media.  These observations affect their moral reasoning and moral behaviour. Their values and beliefs are formed by interactions with parents and other adults, peers, schools, religious groups, the media, the internet, and other institutions.

 

The developmental theorist Kohlberg has identified three levels of moral and moral reasoning development in children as pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional, each of which has 2 stages.) In his view, moral development progresses through three stages as fallows:

a.     Pre-conventional: Where children focus on avoiding punishment and getting rewards,

b.    Conventional: Where they prioritize pleasing others and following rules, and

c.     Post-conventional:  Where they develop their own moral compass based on universal principles like justice and equality.

 

B. Educational Implications of Morality Development during Adolescence

The educational implications of morality development in adolescence can be traced out as follows:

·       Adolescents should be made aware of the punishment for wrongdoing and the need for obedience to be good citizens of society.

·       Parents and teachers should be careful not to use punishment or censure ( निन्दा) to instil moral behaviour. The value of punishment in changing behaviour is very uncertain. Therefore, they should nurture the appropriate behaviours  exhibited by children through appropriate reinforcement and rewards.

·       Adolescents should be taught that morality is determined for the good of the majority of people so that they too can benefit from the social order like others and promote harmonious relationships among group members.

·       Children are not inherently good or bad.  Parents and teachers need to understand that moral behavior is learned like many other behaviors of children.  Their ability to make moral judgments emerges with maturity and experience.

·       Adolescents must be guided by moral beliefs that change across social contexts and social groups.

·       Adolescents should be guided in terms of the common ethical principles they wish to follow.

·       Just as a burnt candle can light another candle, in the same way, teachers and parents should be role models by showing exemplary moral behaviour.

·       The school should provide a good setting in which values;  beliefs and ideas can be critically examined.

·       Parents and teachers should explicitly try to teach children moral reasoning and self-control etc.

 

4.7 Happiness and Unhappiness during Adolescence

Adolescence is considered a time of storm and stress.  This period is full of high ups and downs, where many types of problems are more likely to develop and arise.  Therefore, people often describe teenagers with different words such as rebellious, risk-taking, materialistic, emotional, depressed, stubborn and rude etc.

 

No one is happy all the time. It also implies to adolescents. Happiness or unhappiness is a state of mind or mood. Generally, adolescence is considered as a unhappy period.  Adolescents who encountered maladjustment from childhood are found to be most and persistently unhappy during the early adolescent years.  Such unhappiness comes to them more from personal than environmental causes. As they have unrealistically high aspirations, when their achievements fall short of their expectations, they become dissatisfied and unhappy with themselves. But if adolescents are able to solve problems with reasonable success without the help of adults, they will gradually gain confidence and the period of unhappiness will gradually decrease. As they reach the later years of adolescence and learn to behave like adults, the tension and resentment (असन्तुष्टि) of early adolescence starts to fade away largely. The reason for this is to give them more status in terms of developmental level in late adolescence than during early adolescence. If adolescents receive the three A's of happiness - to meet their needs for acceptance, affection and achievement - their chances of happiness are greatly increased.

 

Teenagers often feel unhappy for different reasons. They might compare themselves to others, feel inferior, get less attention, or struggle when others succeed but they don't. Furthermore, breakups, unacknowledged emotions, strict rules, pressure to please others, low grades, and hormonal changes can add to their unhappiness. However, as they grow older, they tend to become more realistic and feel happier and more satisfied with life than they did in early adolescence. If the controls provided by the environment help meet their needs, they will be happy. Parents and teachers should try to increase their happiness through praise and encouragement, clear rules and boundaries, a healthy family lifestyle and warm family relationships to build a bright and prosperous future for teenagers.

 

4.8 Career Choice, Interest and Future Orientation

a. Career choice and future orientation

For most people, career development is a lifelong process of engaging in work by choosing from among the employment opportunities available to them. However, the work a person chose is influenced by many factors such as the context in which they live, personal abilities, and educational achievements. As far as teenagers are concerned, a major turning point in their lives usually involves the career choice they make when they are in high school. Teens' future orientation refers to expressing their goals, desires, and expectations about the future and planning actions related to them. Teenagers are as worried about the future as young people are, they also start thinking about their future career from adolescence.

 

Career choice is an important requirement of adolescent career development.  They want to choose a career using their values, interests, intelligence and personality traits as their strengths.  This gives the teenagers a chance to succeed in achieving and developing a career in society in the future.  It is often viewed by families and communities as the beginning of readiness to work. However, this decision plays a large role in setting young people on a career path that opens and closes opportunities. Having a job can provide teenagers with extra income, an opportunity to learn new skills, ideas about future careers, and perhaps real value for money.  However, there are many concerns about teenagers working, especially during the school year. But it requires professional intervention from adults.

 

Various theories have been proposed regarding when and how a person pursues a career. In this context, the three stage theory presented by Ginsberg  (1972) will be discussed here. According to him the three stages people move through in choosing a career are as follows:

 

 

I.                  Fantasy (11 & below): Career choice in pre-adolescence is based on fantasy, dreams, momentary enthusiasm and courage rather than on one's ability.

 

II.                Tentative (11-17 yrs. old) : During early and middle adolescence, they choose careers according to their interests, abilities and values.

 

III.           Realistic (17/18 & above): In late adolescent and early adulthood people are able to make correct career choice according to own ability, experience, training and knowledge. Such choices are more clearer and established after succeeded entering college/higher learning institutions.

 

Factors influencing career choice and future orientation in adolescence

Career choice and future orientation of teenagers are influenced by various factors which are briefly described below:

a.     Interdependence of family, school and community culture:

Young adults learn about and explore careers through interactions with family, school, and community contexts.  It plays an important role in shaping their career and future orientation.  Some follow the same careers as their parents and other family members do.

b.    Socio-economic factors: In the career choice of an individual socio-economic factors such as community needs, financial availability, affordability, stereotyping, accessibility and income tax on salary packages have a profound impact.

c.     Ideal Job

Adolescents' career choices are influenced by their perception of "ideal job" and maturity in making career decisions.  The notion of "ideal job" acts as a filter for job suitability and influences the selection process.

d.     Barriers

Various barriers that teenagers face in making their future career choices, such as lack of financial resources, college acceptance and whether they will be able to graduate, etc. also influence their career choice.

e.      Out migration

As many young adults migrate from rural areas to urban areas in the belief that there are more job opportunities and income, urban areas become more crowded and job opportunities are reduced.  They may not get the job they choose and seek.

 

B. Interest during Adolescence

 

Different interests appear at different stages of human life.  These interests play an important role in determining a person's behavior.  Therefore, it is important to know age-specific interests to help understand human behavior and make the right adjustments.  Not everyone has the same interests during adolescence.  Their interests depend on their physical development, intellectual ability, environment, opportunities etc.

 

Adolescent interests can be explained as follows:

d.    Social interests

The desire to involve oneself in group activities like meeting and talking with different members of the society, talking with friends, reconciliation, adjustment, etc. is called the social interest of adolescence.  Some of these social interests of adolescence are:

§  Being active in social activities

§  Participating in various feasts and parties

§  Smoking, drinking and taking drugs

§  Participating in conversations, discussions and debates

§  Singing, dancing and travelling

§  Assisting parents in their work

§  Helping others

§  Helping the poor and needy etc.

 

B. Recreational interest

Recreational interests include various activities to enjoy and enjoy leisure time.  Such interests are acceptable and appreciated to demonstrate physical skills and gather new experiences to move towards a successful future. Some of these interests include:

§  Being interested in various sports

§  Traveling for taste and testing

§  Developing different hobbies like Stamp collecting, pen pal, music, literature etc.

§  Dancing, singing and having fun

§  Watching and listening to radio, television, tape recorder etc.

§  Preferring to engage in various relaxing activities

§  Rejoicing in daydreams etc.

 

C. Personal interests

Not all teenagers have the same interest, the interest that varies from person to person is called personal interest, which are as follows:

§  Interest in own figure, appearance and hair style

§  Desire for good and attractive clothes

§  Having self praise

§  Willingness to not to be defeated by others

§  Desire to earn money and spend lavishly

§  Seeking to be independent and self-reliant

§  Interest in attainment or achievement etc.

D.  Educational interests

Teenagers are also very interested in education.  They understand very well that the profession like doctor, engineer, lawyer, professor, teacher etc. is based on the education they have received.  So they look at this matter with more importance.  They think that only if they get good education, they will get good service or business in future.  There is a great influence of peers, parents, their level, teachers, administrators, etc. on their perception of education.

 

E.   Vocational interests

After the children reach the middle school level, they start thinking about their future with great concern.  Even if it is a small job, they like to do work that gives them high dignity, autonomy, security and authority.  They want to serve more people by becoming nurses, teachers etc. who have high status in the society.

F.    Religious interest

Adolescence is regarded as an age of 'religious doubt'.  In this period, there is not much faith in religion.  They start thinking that religion is a human imagination. As there is a sudden change in childhood religious beliefs, they begin to put many questions and doubts about religion.  They ask parents, teachers and society many questions against religion.  Only after reaching old age does this perception change.

G.  Sex interests

As the sexual characteristics change during adolescence, their interest in sex increases.  They are attracted to the opposite sex.  They like to talk about sex, establish romantic relationships, watch porn movies and pictures, read sex books, masturbate, know about contraception, exchange gifts. So, proper sex education, guidance and counseling are necessary to prevent distortions in sexual  sexual behavior of adolescent girls.

 

                    The End

 

 

               Unit Five

Adolescence and Understanding Problems

 

The period of adolescence is the most critical and crucial period of an individual's life. Adolescent has to face many conflicting situations or problems. These problems are more than just mere complaints. Many parents and teachers in general keep these complaints aside. Without a proper guidance the adolescents might find themselves in a difficult position. In this section, we shall discuss some such common problems that adolescents face in their academic and personal lives during adolescence:

 

5.1 Adolescence and Drug Abuse,  Alcoholism  and Effects

Adolescence can be a turbulent (अशान्त) period for many teenagers.  During this time, young people go through a lot of physical, psychological, cognitive, and social development.  Nowadays, the use and abuse of drugs and alcohol is increasing among teenagers.  This is causing serious consequences for them such as  delay healthy growth, increased anxiety and depression,  and high risk of developing a substance use disorder. It has been found that the people who start abusing drugs and alcohol  in adolescence are more likely to become addicted than those who do so in adulthood.  The major reason behind this is that the body is in an important stage of development during adolescence and the brain is not yet fully matured - especially in the area of ​​the brain related to impulse control. A study shows that 9 out of 10 people start addiction in their teens.  Similarly, the average age of those who use drugs for the first time is 13-14. About 50% of deaths (accidents, homicides, suicides) especially among 15-24 year olds are caused by alcohol or drug abuse.  Adolescents have been found to experience chronic use of alcohol and drugs  recreationally and to compensate for other problems. The most commonly used drugs by teenagers are marijuana, amphetamines, spice/k2, prescription pain killers, DXM cough syrup, sedatives and tranquilizers, MDMA, hallucinogens, salvia etc.

a.     Causes

Some of the factors that induce teenagers to drink and abuse drugs are as follows:

§  Peer pressure and bad company

§  Physical and sexual abuse

§   Early exposure to drugs

§  Stress, frustrations and failures

§  Lack of parental care, control and guidance

§  Adverse childhood experience

§  Family history

§  Curiosity

§  Religious and cultural factors

§  Drift towards western culture

§  Trap of smugglers

§  Socio-economic status etc.

 

b.    Effects

The common  effects of drug abuse and alcoholism include:

 

Health effects

·       Spread of HIV/AIDS, hepatitis and other venereal diseases,

·       Cirrhosis, pancreatitis, amblyopia, gastritis (alcoholism)

·       Unconsciousness, coma and sudden death,

·       Tendency to commit suicide,

·       Lack of concentration and forgetfulness,

·       Stomach cramps, diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting,

·       Excessive sweating and raised blood pressure,

·       Loss of appetite, unexplained weight loss and insomnia,

·       Birth of mentally retarded child,

·        Chances of having skin diseases, tetanus, tuberculosis and jaundice

·       Lowered mental function due to loss of brain cells

·       Mental problems such as depression, amnesia, paranoia and anxiety etc.

·       Weakened immune system

·       Addiction

·       Hostility (Aggression) etc.

 

 Socio-economic effects

·       Economic crisis

·       , Increase in social evils such as theft, kidnapping, quarrelling, prostitution etc.

·       Loss of social prestige,

·       Increase in unemployment,

·       Family disputes and breakups,

·       Increase in sex crime and sexual disorders,

·        Poor academic performance,

·       Social discarding,

·       Loss of responsibility towards family and society etc.

 

5.2 Adolescence and Sex, HIV/AIDS, Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Effects

a.  Adolescence and Sex

Adolescence is a stage of transition in which major developments in sexuality takes place. As the sexual characteristics change during adolescence, they experience and explore sexual feelings and interests in many ways. Some teenagers are sexually attracted to people of the opposite sex, some are attracted to people of the same sex, and some are bisexual while some  might express no sexual interest. They like to talk about sex, establish romantic relationships, flirt, kiss, watch porn movies and pictures, read sex books, masturbate, know about contraception, exchange gifts or have sex with a partner.  However, their sexual interests and behaviours may vary greatly by biological sexual maturation, parent and peer values associated with sexual behaviors, environmental opportunities for engaging in sexual intimacies, cultural norms as well as the sex education provided.

Many adolescents may engage in sexual relationships with single and/or multiple partners. A global survey shows that 11% of adolescent boys/girls (in developing countries) and 22% of adolescent girls (in Latin America and the Caribbean) aged between 15 and 19, had their first sexual experience before the age of 15. Sometimes, they may engage in sexual activity without using contraceptive measures/devices.  They may have such sexual behavior that can put them at risk of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including HIV.  Behaviours that put adolescents at risk for HIV/AIDS also increase the risk of other STDs.  These behaviours include:

a.  Having sex without a condom

b. Having sex with multiple partners, especially unknown partners.

c.  Having sex while under the influence of drugs or alcohol.

 

B.   Adolescence and Sexually Transmitted Diseases including HIV/AIDS

Adolescence is a stage of physical growth and development accompanied by sexual maturation that often leads to intimate relationships.  According to one study, among sexually experienced individuals, adolescents between the ages of 15 and 19 have the highest reported rates of STDs.  In addition, specific groups of adolescents such as injecting drug users and adolescents who have sex for drugs also engage in greater risk-taking behaviors.  In many countries around the world, sexually transmitted diseases are rampant among teenagers.  Many teenagers begin having sex with more than one sexual partner before marriage, and this certainly facilitates the transmission of STDs and HIV.  Adolescents in general are at risk of contracting HIV through sexual transmission, because most engage in sexual intercourse, have multiple partners over a period of time, and fail to use condoms consistently with each act of sexual contact. In addition, many adolescents are also infected with other STDs that facilitate the transmission of HIV.  Most teenagers in highly developed countries are actually at relatively low risk for it, because they rarely have sex with HIV-infected people.  In contrast, adolescents in developing countries where HIV infection is widespread are at high risk of contracting HIV through unprotected sex. Adolescent engagement in ‘early’ sexual activity is usually considered as a high-risk behaviour. Others include the use of drugs and alcohol, prostitution, lack of commitment in school studies etc. Among the various risk factors and situations for adolescents to acquire the HIV virus are adolescent sex workers, child trafficking, child labour, migrant populations, childhood sexual abuse, coercive sex with older persons, and biological (immature reproductive tract) as well as psychological risks. The most important thing that we should consider is adolescent STDs including HIV/AIDS is a separate epidemic and needs to be handled and managed separately from adult HIV.

 

Some ways to reduce adolescent STDs  including HIV AIDS.

§  School-based adolescent sexual health programme should be launched.

§  Strategies should be developed to actively involve parents in sexual health education programs.

§  School and community level sexual health prevention and promotion activities should be expanded.

§  Programs such as sexual risk assessment, creating an adolescent-friendly clinical environment, and providing counseling about preventive behaviors should be conducted.

§  Teens should be taught to choose less risky behaviours such as reducing the number of times they have sex, not drinking alcohol or using drugs before sex.

§  They should be made aware of abstinence as much as possible and the correct use of condoms every time they have sex, if necessary.

§  Special programs targeting adolescent groups at high risk of HIV infection should be initiated.

§  The  content such as becoming a responsible teenager, finding safe options, making proud choices, reducing the risk should be included school curriculum and textbook.

 

c. Effects of Sex on Adolescence

 

 Adolescence is a time of sexual risk-taking and experimentation, but this can lead to various problems. Studies show that sex during adolescence can have lasting negative effects on the body and mood of them.  Some of these effects are as follows:

§  Spread of sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS

§  Increase in unwanted teenage pregnancy and abortion

§  Maternal and infant mortality rates are likely to be high

§  Unable to complete education, earn and be independent

§  Feeling of regrets, guilt, depression and loss of self-respect

§  Loss of family support

§  Becoming a father or mother at an early age increases the financial burden on the family.

§  Loss of prestige

§  Rise in substance abuse, suicide and murder.

§  Adverse effects on reproductive health such as complicated pregnancy and child birth etc.

 

5.3 Adolescence and Social Violence and Conflict

 

 Adolescence is a transitional period marked by various changes.  Adapting to changes in relationships, social contexts, status and performance standards, they face stress and rejection that can lead to serious problems and turn them into violence. Similarly, conflict increases during adolescence as children become independent and responsible young adults with their own perspectives and priorities. Such conflicts of teenagers are often seen against their parents, teachers, adults in the society and societal values.

 

Violent behaviours in adolescence include a wide range of behaviors such as explosive temper, physical aggression, fighting, threatening or attempting to hurt others, use of weapons, cruelty to animals, setting fires, bullying, sexual violence, cyber-aggression, child maltreatment, exposure to aggressive media, deliberate destruction of property, etc.

Violence is one of the leading causes of death in adolescence. Adolescents may exhibit violent and conflicting behavior.  This is a matter of great concern.  Parents, teachers and other adults need to carefully understand this complex and problematic issue. Addressing social violence and conflict among adolescents is crucial for promoting their overall health and well-being. By creating safe and supportive environments, providing resources and support for those who have experienced violence and conflict, and promoting prevention and education efforts, we can help adolescents thrive and reach their full potential.

 

Causes of social violence and conflict during adolescence

The degree to which adolescents express violence and conflict in their homes, neighbourhoods, and schools stems from:

a.     Individual factors: Individual factors such as impulsiveness, aggressiveness, and antisocial behavior, break ups, lack of care and guidance, head injuries, physical or sexual abuse social and cultural norms etc. can play a significant role in determining an adolescent's risk of involvement in social violence and conflict.

 

 

b.    Peer pressure: Adolescents may feel pressure to conform to the norms and values of their peer group, which can sometimes lead to aggressive or violent behavior.

c.     Lack of conflict resolution skills: Teens may struggle to effectively resolve conflicts, which may escalate into violent incidents.

d.    Substance abuse: Substance abuse can increase the likelihood of violent behavior and conflict, as it can impair an individual's ability to make sound decisions and control their impulses.

e.     Mental health issues: Adolescents with mental health problems, such as depression, anxiety, or mood disorders, may be at increased risk for engaging in violent or aggressive behavior.

f.      Family dysfunction: Family conflict, abuse, or neglect can have a profound impact on an adolescent's emotional and social development and increase their risk of involvement in violent or conflictual situations.

g.     Exposure to violence: Adolescents who are exposed to violence in their communities or homes may be more likely to engage in violent behavior themselves.

h.    Socioeconomic factors: Adolescents from disadvantaged backgrounds may face increased risk of involvement in violence and conflict, due to limited access to resources, poor living conditions, and exposure to community violence.

i.       Media : The media can play a role in shaping the attitudes and behaviors of adolescents, which can impact their risk of involvement in social violence and conflict.  The media, particularly television and movies, often depict such contents that induce teenagers to engage in violent behavior. Besides, it may also develop stereotyping and prejudice that can lead to conflict and violence based on differences such as race, ethnicity, or gender.

 

Consequences of social violence and conflicts in adolescence

The consequences of social violence and conflict in adolescence can be far-reaching and have a profound impact on an individual's physical, emotional, and social well-being. Some of the consequences of social violence and conflict in adolescence include:

 

·       Physical harm: Violence and conflict can result in physical injury, and in some cases, permanent disabilities or death.

·       Emotional trauma: Adolescents who are involved in violent or conflictual situations may experience emotional trauma, such as fear, anxiety, and depression.

·        Decreased academic performance: Adolescents who are involved in violence and conflict may struggle to focus in school and may have decreased academic performance. There is a higher chance of school /college dropout.

·       Social isolation: Adolescents who engage in violent or conflictual behavior may become isolated from their peers and may struggle to form positive relationships.

·       Increased risk of substance abuse: Adolescents who are involved in violence and conflict may be at increased risk of substance abuse and addiction, as they may use drugs or alcohol to cope with the emotional distress caused by their experiences.

·       Increased risk of future violence: Adolescents who engage in violent or conflictual behavior are at increased risk of future involvement in violence and conflict, as they may develop patterns of violent behavior that can be difficult to break.

·       Legal consequences: Adolescents who engage in violent or criminal behaviour may face legal consequences, such as arrest, imprisonment, or fines, which can have a lasting impact on their future opportunities and well-being.

Prevention of social violence and conflict in adolescence

Preventing social violence and conflict in adolescence is a critical issue that requires a comprehensive approach. Here are a few steps that can help:

·       Positive relationships between peers and adults should be encouraged through teamwork, communication skills, and empathy development programs.

·       School-wide programs should be conducted to educate students about the negative effects of bullying and encourage bystander intervention.

·       Teens' cultural sensitivity and understanding should be improved through cultural exchange programs, diversity education, and inclusive school environments.

·       Support and resources should be provided to youth struggling with mental health issues, family issues, or other challenges.

·       Life skills such as problem solving, decision making, empathy and anger management should be taught to youth through training schools, community organizations, and mentoring programs.

·       Positive youth development programs that focus on building strengths, skills and connections should be launched.

·       The involvement of parents, schools, law enforcement, and local organizations should be enhanced to create a safe environment to prevent adolescent violence and conflict.

·       Programs should be developed to identify patterns, causes and prevention strategies of violence.  Successful interventions require changes in risky lifestyles such as drugs, firearms (बन्दुक), early sex and other risky behaviours. Etc.

 

5.4  Adolescence: frustration and Suicide

Adolescence is a period of storm and stress. Due to various reasons, children of this age are under stress and there is a possibility of frustration and suicide.

Frustration is a common emotional experience for adolescents as they navigate through the complex and rapidly changing world around them. They are trying to find their place in society, and often struggle with identity formation, relationships, and academic or career goals. Adolescents may feel frustrated with themselves or their abilities, or they may face obstacles that prevent them from achieving their desired outcomes. For example, they may struggle to fit in with their peers, feel pressured to conform to societal expectations, or face academic difficulties that impact their self-esteem.

 

 These feelings of frustration can lead to serious mental health problems, particularly when they are not addressed or managed appropriately. Research has shown that adolescent frustration is a significant risk factor for suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Adolescents who experience frustration may feel hopeless, helpless, and overwhelmed, leading them to believe that death is the only solution to their problems.

 

 Social media and technology have made things even harder for young people. They see a lot of pictures and messages on the internet that make them feel bad about themselves and think they are not good enough. This can also make them feel lonely and isolated because they compare their lives to the perfect images they see online.

 

Causes of frustrations and suicides

There may be the following reasons behind increasing frustrations and suicidal thoughts in teenagers:

 

·       Unmet expectations: Adolescents may feel frustrated when their expectations or goals are not met, such as not getting accepted into their desired college or struggling with their academics.

 

·       Peer pressure: Adolescents may feel pressure from their peers to conform to certain behaviors or attitudes, leading to frustration and a sense of inadequacy.

 

·       Family issues: Conflict or stress within the family can contribute to adolescent frustration and a sense of isolation.

 

·       Identity confusion: Adolescents are in the process of developing their identities and may feel frustrated with their changing emotions, beliefs, and desires.

 

·       Social media and technology: The constant exposure to images and messages on social media can contribute to feelings of low self-esteem and inadequacy, exacerbating feelings of frustration.

 

·       Mental health issues: Adolescents with depression, anxiety, or other mental health disorders may experience feelings of hopelessness and helplessness, which can contribute to suicidal thoughts and behaviors.

 

·       Traumatic experiences: Exposure to traumatic events, such as abuse or violence, can lead to feelings of anger, anxiety, and frustration, which can increase the risk of suicide.

 

·       Substance abuse: Substance abuse can exacerbate feelings of frustration and hopelessness, and increase the risk of suicide.

 

·       Lack of support: Adolescents who feel unsupported or alone may experience feelings of frustration and despair, which can increase the risk of suicide.

 

It is important for adults to recognize the signs of adolescent frustration and provide support and resources to those in need. This may include seeking help from mental health professionals, encouraging open communication, and providing opportunities for adolescents to engage in healthy coping strategies.

 

Prevention of adolescent frustrations and suicides

Prevention of adolescent frustrations and suicides is a crucial issue that requires a multi-faceted approach. The following are some of the key prevention strategies that can help reduce the risk of adolescent suicides:

 

·       Promoting Mental Health: Adolescents should be encouraged to take care of their mental health by engaging in self-care activities and seeking help when needed. This can include regular exercise, healthy eating, and stress management techniques like meditation or yoga.

 

·       Building Resilience: Strengthening the adolescent's resilience by helping them develop coping skills to handle life's challenges and setbacks is a must. This can include providing them with positive role models and teaching them problem-solving skills.

 

·       Enhancing Connections: Through creation of supportive relationships and a sense of belonging, their frustrations and suicidal thoughts can be prevented. They should be  encouraged to participate in activities they enjoy and connect with supportive adults.

 

·       Addressing Substance Abuse: There should be a mechanism to address risk of suicide caused by substance abuse and addiction. This can include providing education on the dangers of substance abuse, as well as offering support and treatment options for those struggling with addiction.

 

·       Reducing Access to Lethal Means: Reducing the risk of suicide by reducing access to lethal means, such as firearms and toxic substances is very important. This can include implementing safe storage practices and ensuring that prescription medications are stored safely.

 

·       Providing Support: Those who are at risk of suicide should be provided with support and resources through hotlines, crisis centres, and support groups. This can also include offering training and resources for educators, healthcare providers, and others who may come into contact with at-risk adolescents.

 

·       Raising Awareness: Raising awareness is an important measure to prevent adolescent suicides. This can include working with schools, community organizations, and media outlets to educate the public and promote prevention.

 

·       Encouraging Help-Seeking: Adolescents should be encouraged to seek help and support when they need it by removing the stigma surrounding mental health and suicide. This can include promoting the idea that seeking help is a sign of strength and that it is okay to ask for help.

 

·       Encouraging Physical Activity: Physical activity can improve mood and reduce the risk of suicide. Encouraging adolescents to engage in physical activity can help promote well-being and reduce the risk of suicide.

·        Fostering a Sense of Purpose: Having a sense of purpose and meaning can help reduce the risk of suicide. Encouraging adolescents to find their passions and engage in activities that give them a sense of purpose can help prevent suicide.

 

5.5 Ways out: guidance and counselling, psychotherapy, rehabilitation and family adjustment

 

a. Guidance and Counselling for Adolescents

Adolescence is a critical time for personal growth, and many adolescents face challenges that can impact their well-being and future success. Therefore

they need guidance and counselling from time to time. It is a process that aims to support young people in their personal, social, and academic development. It is based on the understanding that young people need support to navigate the challenges of growing up, build healthy relationships, make informed decisions, and reach their full potential. This support can take many forms, including individual or group counselling, career guidance, or support for mental health and well-being.

The counsellors work with adolescents to identify and address their unique needs and goals. They provide a safe and supportive environment where young people can explore their thoughts and feelings, and receive guidance on important decisions and life challenges. They also offer practical advice on issues such as academic performance, relationships, and managing stress and anxiety.

 

 The issues that adolescents may seek guidance and counselling for include:

 

·       Academic pressure and stress

 

·       Relationship difficulties

 

·       Identity and self-esteem issues

 

·       Substance abuse and addiction

 

·       Mental health concerns, such as depression and anxiety

 

·       Family conflicts

 

·       Career planning and decision-making

 

 Guidance and counselling for adolescents can be delivered in a variety of settings, including schools, community centers, and mental health clinics. The goal of guidance and counseling is to help young people develop the skills and resilience they need to navigate the challenges of adolescence and build successful and fulfilling lives.

 

Goals of guidance and counselling for adolescents

The goals of guidance and counselling for adolescents typically include:

 

·       To support personal and emotional development

 

·       To enhance academic success

 

·       To encourage healthy behaviours

 

·       To foster positive relationships

 

·       To encourage for career exploration

 

·        To develop necessary skills and resilience (resistance) to cope with challenges

 

·       To promote self awareness and self discovery etc.

 

B.  Psychotherapy

 

I. Concept of psychotherapy

Psychotherapy is a mental health treatment that involves talking with a trained professional to address emotional, behavioural, and psychological issues. Carl Rogers, a renowned psychologist, defined psychotherapy as a form of interpersonal relationship in which the therapist seeks to facilitate the growth, self-understanding and adjustment of the client through verbal communication and behavioural interventions. The goal of psychotherapy is to help individuals gain insight into their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, and to learn coping strategies and problem-solving skills that can improve their overall well-being and relationships.

 

 Adolescents, in particular, can greatly benefit from psychotherapy. Adolescence is a time of significant physical, emotional, and cognitive change where they  may experience a range of mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and substance abuse. Psychotherapy can help adolescents identify and address the root causes of their difficulties, and develop effective coping strategies to manage their symptoms and improve their overall functioning.

 

 Additionally, adolescents often struggle with forming a sense of identity and establishing healthy relationships, and psychotherapy can help them in these areas by providing a supportive, non-judgmental space for them to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences. Psychotherapy can also help adolescents develop better communication skills, which can improve their relationships with their peers and family members.

 

 Overall, psychotherapy can play a crucial role in supporting the mental and emotional health of adolescents and helping them develop the skills and resiliency they need to navigate the challenges of adolescence and beyond.

 

Ii. Need of psychotherapy to Adolescents

Psychotherapy can be highly beneficial for adolescents, who are at a critical stage of their psychological and emotional development. Here are some of the reasons why psychotherapy may be needed for adolescents:

·       It  helps address adolescents' mental health concerns and promote positive mental health.

·       It helps adolescents encounter the challenges of relationships, self-discovery, and self-acceptance.

·       It helps them address the underlying issues that contribute to substance use and support them in recovery.

·       It provides a safe space to work through family conflicts and develop stronger family relationships.

·       It helps them explore the underlying issues and improve their overall functioning in academic and behavioural problems.

·       It provides necessary support during their challenging time.

·       It works through their emotions and help develop coping strategies etc.

 

Iii. Types of Psychotherapy

 

Different types of psychotherapy can be used to treat behavioral and mental health problems in adolescents. Some of these techniques include:

·       Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT): This type of therapy helps adolescents accept and understand their emotions. The therapist works with the adolescent to develop a sense of commitment to moving forward in a positive direction.

 

·       Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT): This type of therapy helps improve adolescents' mood and behavior by addressing distorted or confused thinking patterns. CBT teaches adolescents that thoughts can influence feelings and moods. During CBT, the adolescent learns to identify harmful thought patterns and replace them with more positive thoughts. CBT has been shown to be effective in treating conditions such as depression and anxiety.

 

·       Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT): This type of therapy is used to help adolescents who are struggling with suicidal thoughts or self-harm behaviors. DBT focuses on taking responsibility for problems and exploring ways to manage conflict and intense emotions. It combines group and individual sessions.

 

·        Family Therapy: This type of therapy works to improve family dynamics by exploring communication patterns and providing education and support. Family therapy can involve the adolescent, parents, siblings, and grandparents. Couples Therapy is a specific type of family therapy that focuses on improving communication and interactions between partners.

 

·       Group Therapy: This type of therapy involves multiple individuals receiving therapy led by one or more therapists. It leverages the power of group dynamics to improve understanding of mental illness and/or improve skills. There are many different types of group therapy, such as social skills, substance abuse, multi-family, and parent support groups.

 

·        Interpersonal Therapy (IPT): This is a brief treatment specifically developed and tested for depression, but is also used to treat other clinical conditions. IPT focuses on how interpersonal events impact an individual's mood, and addresses problematic relationships.

 

·       Mentalization Based Therapy (MBT): This type of therapy is designed to help children and adolescents who are struggling with their sense of self. MBT focuses on helping these individuals develop into healthy, well-adjusted adults.

 

·        Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT): This type of therapy is designed to help parents and adolescents improve their relationship through real-time coaching sessions. The therapist guides the family towards positive interactions while the parent and adolescent interact with each other.

 

·       Play Therapy: This type of therapy uses toys, games, and drawings to help children and adolescents recognize, identify, and express their feelings. The therapist observes the child/adolescent as they play, and uses this information to better understand their conflicts, feelings, and behaviours.

 

·        Psychodynamic Psychotherapy: This type of therapy emphasizes understanding the underlying issues that influence a child's behavior, thoughts, and feelings. It can help identify behavior patterns, defenses, and responses to inner struggles. Psychoanalysis is a specialized, more intensive form of psychodynamic psychotherapy that typically involves several sessions per week.

 

·       Supportive Therapy: This type of therapy provides adolescents with support and coping skills to navigate life's challenges. It is designed to help them feel more empowered and resilient.

 

Iii. Family Adjustment

 

Adolescence is a crucial developmental stage in a person's life, and the family plays a vital role in their well-being during this time. A supportive and positive family environment can foster positive behaviors and outcomes, while a negative and conflict-filled environment can lead to negative behaviors and outcomes.

 

 Having a positive relationship with parents, characterized by high levels of support and open communication, is especially important for adolescents as they navigate the physical and emotional changes of this stage. Adolescents who have a strong bond with at least one parent tend to have better physical and mental health and are less likely to engage in dangerous behaviors such as drinking and smoking.

Conflicts within the family during adolescence are normal, but when adolescents experience high levels of conflict and low levels of support from their parents, they are more likely to engage in dangerous behaviors and struggle with depression symptoms. It's crucial for families to find ways to support each other and maintain positive relationships during the adolescent years.

The way adolescents communicate with their parents varies with age. While most adolescents have parents they can talk to about important matters, fewer older adolescents have parents who they have good communication with. Racial and ethnic differences also play a role in communication between parents and adolescents. Good communication doesn't necessarily eliminate all conflicts, but it helps a lot in eliminating frequent and intense conflicts. As adolescents grow and develop their reasoning and critical thinking skills, they may challenge their parents more, leading to more arguments.

The family context affects adolescent well-being more broadly than just the relationship between a parent and adolescent. Family engagement, negative interactions, and parent satisfaction are other factors that play a role. For example, parents with high levels of marital satisfaction are more likely to exhibit good parenting practices, which can positively impact the adolescent. Most adolescents with partnered parents have parents who report a happy relationship with their partner or spouse.

Iv. Rehabilitation

Teenagers face many challenges and pressures that can lead to substance abuse, behavioural problems, and other types of addiction. Substance abuse is a growing concern among adolescents and can have serious long-term effects on their health and well- being. Adolescents who abuse drugs or alcohol put their still-developing brains at risk and impair their normal psychosocial development. If they don't receive help in time, they face an elevated risk of continuing substance abuse problems in adulthood.

Getting help early is crucial for teens struggling with substance abuse because they often don't realize they have a problem. Parents need to act fast to limit the damage of addiction. Rehabilitation programs for teens can help address these issues and provide a safe and supportive environment for them to overcome their struggles. A teen rehabilitation program can provide individualized treatment and support to help the teenager overcome their struggles and develop the skills and tools they need to lead a healthy and fulfilling life.

Adolescents require a tailored approach to addiction treatment and should be enrolled in a program designed specifically for teens. While some general substance abuse programs may accept participants of all ages, these programs are not effective for adolescents. Teens may feel uncomfortable in all-age group therapy sessions, may not receive the necessary discipline or understanding, and parents may not be involved in the treatment process, which is essential.

In conclusion, when searching for a drug rehab program for adolescents, parents should ensure that they find a program designed exclusively for teens. This will provide the best chances of success in recovery and limit the long-term effects of addiction. Adolescence rehab programs play a critical role in helping adolescents overcome substance abuse, behavioral disorders, and mental health issues and in supporting their personal growth and development.  It is vital that adolescents receive help as soon as possible to limit the damage of addiction and to ensure they receive the tailored treatment they need to overcome substance abuse.

 

5.6 Educational Implications of Adolescence

Understanding the developmental changes that occur during adolescence can help administrators, teachers, planners,  and parents create a more supportive and effective learning environment for their students. Some of the educational implications of adolescence can be traced out as follows:

1. Games/Plays: Adolescents benefit from participating in games and play activities as they provide an outlet for their energy, promote physical fitness, and encourage social interaction.

 

2. Sex Education: Educating adolescents about sexuality and relationships can provide them with the knowledge and skills they need to make informed decisions about their sexual health and well-being.

 

3. Sympathy: Adolescents experience a range of emotions, and it is important for educators to show empathy and understanding towards them.

 

4. Excursions and Tours: Adolescents are curious and love to explore. Providing them with opportunities to travel and experience new things can broaden their horizons and expose them to new cultures and ideas.

5. Responsibility Training: Adolescents need to learn how to take ownership of their choices and actions, and education can provide them with the necessary skills and guidance to become responsible individuals.

 

 6. Moral Development and Character Education: Adolescents are developing their sense of right and wrong, and education can provide them with guidance and resources to develop a strong moral compass and character.

 

 7. Emotional and Instinct Education: Adolescents need an environment that is supportive and nurturing, where they can explore and learn about their emotions and instincts in a healthy and constructive way.

8. Limiting Daydreaming: While daydreaming can be a fun and creative way for adolescents to pass the time, it is important to ensure that it does not interfere with their studies or daily responsibilities.

 

 9. Career Guidance: Adolescents need to explore their interests and aptitudes to determine what career paths they are best suited for. Education can provide them with guidance and resources to make informed decisions about their future.

 

 10. Guidance and Counselling: Adolescents may face a variety of personal and social issues during this stage of life, and it is important for educators to provide them with the necessary guidance and counseling to navigate these challenges.