1.
Eastern Thought
Educational
thought based on Eastern philosophy, religion, culture, civilization, customs, art, etc. is Eastern thought.
It generally refers to various thoughts that originated and developed in the
East, Southeast and Southern parts of Asia. From a geographical point of view,
it includes Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Korean philosophy, Japanese
philosophy, Vietnamese philosophy, etc. Eastern educational thought gives
priority to human character, personality development, self-reflection, ethics, balance of nature,
eco-friendly lifestyle etc.
Ideas
related to Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam including Babylon period (4000-3100 BC)
were in practice in the Eastern ancient education system. The period from
1500-600 BC was called the period of Vedic education. Based on educational thought and ideas,
Eastern education can be discussed as follows:
1.1.
Aims and
Objective of Eastern Educational Thought
The aims and objectives of education in
Eastern educational thought are as follows:
a. To
develop self-realization and spiritual contemplation in the individual
b. To
develop personality suitable for contemporary society
c. To
give more emphasis to the subjects to be taught at different levels
d. To
emphasize on topics that are more useful from the point of view of the
examination
e. To
enable to memorize and reproduce bookish knowledge
f. To
enable learners to get high score and certificate in exam
g. To
inculcate discipline and human values in students etc.
1.2.
Development of Education
according to Eastern Educational Thought based on Time (chronology)
If
we look at the development of Eastern education, it appears to be irregular in
nature. In other words, no formal
methods are followed in its development.
It is found that the educational process is focused on the
culturalization and socialization of the new generation from the old
generation. In fact, the Eastern
thinking on education can be studied by dividing it into following three
periods:
A.
Ancient education:
It is believed that the beginning of ancient education
started with the development of human civilization. In the past, education was received orally or
through observation. According to
anthropologists, 20,000 to 10,000 BC is considered as the initial period of
education development. During that
period, people spend their routines as wandering hunters within a certain
geographical area. They lived in groups
and transmitted their routines, customs, values, practices and experiences
orally from one generation to the next.
At the same time, the forms of education have been ensured, and specific
people related to religion and tradition have taken the responsibility of
providing education. According to this
tradition, they developed the tradition of transferring traditional knowledge,
stories, proverbs, religious rites and songs, folktales and poems orally (since
the art of writing was not developed) to the new generation. Besides this, it
seems that the transfer of literature based on Shruti, including epics,
divine presentations, mantras, etc., also took place through this process. In ancient India (between 1500 to 600 B.C.), education
was based on Vedas and Ayurveda. Which
the students used to go to the Guru's ashram and receive according to his
instructions.
Around the eighth century, Indian education is found
to be based on Mahabharata and Ramayana.
In the Mahabharata, the relationship between the individual and the
society as well as the human deeds, has been mentioned, while in the Ramayana,
lessons about dignity and duty has been mentioned. Similarly around 2500 years before today ie
(563-483 BC), Siddhartha Gautama presented the Buddhist philosophy and
presented wisdom and samadhi as the objectives of education.
Looking at ancient China, during the reign of the Zhou
Dynasty (1045 to 256 BC), national schools were opened and through those
schools, subjects such as religious rites, music, chariot driving, writing,
mathematics, etc. were taught. In addition, Schoolgirls were taught various
vocational skills, including silk spinning. At the same time, Confucius
(551-478 BC) emerged in China, and his influence on ancient learning can be
easily seen to this day.
B.
Medieval education:
Medieval
education seems to have progressed from the progress made in ancient
education. During this period, various
centres of higher education were established in India. Subjects such as art, craft, painting, logic,
mathematics, grammar, philosophy, astronomy, literature, Buddhism, Hindu
philosophy, economics, political science, law and medicine were taught in those
centres. Among the main educational
institutions established during this period were Nalanda University in Bihar
(700 to 1200 AD) and Vikramashila University (800 to 1200 AD) in Bhagalpur,
Bihar, Taksasila University in Rawalpindi, Pakistan (600 BC to 500 AD). ) etc.
Similarly,
in China, there was a practice of teaching language and Confucius' ideas by
using the memorization method in teaching and learning. The epic "Thousand character
classic" written in the 6th century is taken as the first foundation of
education. Similarly, in the Song
Dynasty (11th century AD), there was a history of using the epic "Hundred
family surname" for educational purposes.
The influence of both these epics is found being used from that time to
the 19th century.
C.
Modern period education:
In
the 18th century, education became widespread in India. Various schools have been established in the
country and teaching of subjects such as reading, writing, mathematics,
theology, law, astronomy, philosophy, ethics, and medicine has been
started. Modern education in India and
Nepal started from the end of this century and educationists like Mahatma
Gandhi, Swami Vivekananda, Jai Prithvi Bahadur Singh have expressed their views
and opinions towards education.
1.3.The Development of
Education according to Eastern Education Thought on a Regional Basis
From
a regional/geographical
point of view, the Eastern educational thought includes the study of Indian
philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Korean philosophy, Japanese philosophy,
Vietnamese philosophy, etc. A short description of major ones are presented
below:
A.
Babylonian philosophy:
The
philosophy that developed from a city in ancient Mesopotamia between the two
main rivers Euphrates and Tigris is called Babylon philosophy. During this time, various thoughts related to
ethics and human life have been developed.
This philosophy gives more emphasis on logic and thinking system. The idea of education in this philosophy is
similar to Western philosopher Heraclitus and Plato's Dialogue.
B.
Chinese philosophy:
Chinese
philosophy is considered one of the oldest philosophies in the world. It seems to have been influenced by the book "The
Book of Change" written by Yi Jing during the Zhou Dynasty. This is a prophetic collection of books,
containing 60 hexagons to guide human actions. The book "The spring and
autumn annals" written between 722 and 481BC gave birth to new ideas and
philosophy.
Confucius contributed significantly to the development
of Chinese philosophy. He wrote a book called Hundred schools of thought. This philosophy
emphasizes human virtues and right conduct.
It is considered as the foundations of the development of Chinese
culture and civilization, which has a distinct identity in the world. The
philosophy of Confucius has influenced China, Tibet as well as Japan, Korea and
other eastern countries around. Apart
from Confucian philosophy, philosophies such as Taoism, Mohism and Legalism
seem to have influenced ancient China.
C.
Indian philosophy:
Under this topic, some philosophies that influence
people's lifestyle and education in some countries of the Indian subcontinent
including India will be studied.
a. Hindu
philosophy
The
origin and development of Hindu philosophy took place in Indian subcontinents
which is present day Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and India. It is also known as
Arya or Sanatan dharma philosophy. The primordial scripture of Hindu
philosophy is the Vedas. Veda means knowledge or wisdom. There are four types
of Vedas. The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas that contains large collection of hymns in praise of the gods, which
are chanted in various rituals. The second is Yajurveda, which entails prose
mantras related to worshiping and rituals. The Samaveda,
also known as Veda of Chants has collection
of melodies and chants. The fourth Veda,
Atharvaveda is a collection of 20 books
containing hymns, chants, spells and prayers; and involves issues such as
healing of illnesses, prolonging life, black magic and rituals for removing
maladies and anxieties. The first three Vedas-Rig, Yajur, and Sama-are known as
the trayi-vidya ("threefold knowledge").
Based
on these Vedas, six orthodox schools of thought or systems have been developed.
It is also known as Shathdarshan. It is further classified into two
categories namely the theist and atheist
philosophy. A short description of them is presented
below:
I.
Theist (Astika)
Philosophies
The philosophies that accept the Vedas and follow the
path prescribed by it fall under this category. A short description of
them is given below:
i.
Sankhya
Philosophy: The Sanskrit word Sankhya
means number or enumeration. It is the oldest of all philosophies put forth by
the sage Kapila. It is a dualistic philosophy with Purusha
(soul/spirit/consciousness) and Prakriti (nature) in it. Sankhya philosophy teaches us that the
universe was born from the union of Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti is made up
of of Trigunas:- Satva, Raja, Tamo Gunas. It provides a model of existence
which shows 25 elements, that evolve out of each other. The knowledge of the 25
Tatvas is called as 'Tatwa Jnana'. The person who gets the complete knowledge
of these Tatwas is eligible for attaining the Moksha.
ii.
Yoga Philosophy : Yoga
comes from the Sanskrit word Yuj, which
means union, that is to connect the individual soul with the
divine. This philosophy has become popular worldwide today. It is also called
Patanjali yoga as its founder is Maharshi Patanjali. Yoga is discussed in
Vedas, Upanishads, Smriti, Puranas etc.
In the Bhagavad Gita, there is a lot of discussion about yoga under the
names of Jnana Yoga, Buddhi Yoga, Sankhya Yoga etc. Unlike other philosophies, this philosophy
does not consider the body as a lie or an illusion, rather it considers the
body as a very useful object for the means.
This philosophy holds that a healthy body has a pure mind and through a
pure mind one can attain salvation.
"Yoga sutras" are described in four sutras namely Samadhipada,
Sadhanapada, Vibhutipada and Kauvalyapada. In the Samadhipada of Yoga
Philosophy, Yoga is interpreted as "Yogaschivrttinirodha" i.e.
stopping various types of disorders in the mind. According to yoga philosophy,
human beings have five types of Vrittis due to which the body, mind and senses
become impure. According to Yoga philosophy, after conquering the body, senses,
mind, intellect, and ego, one can know the pure nature of the soul. Yoga
philosophy mentions eight limbs or steps( asthanga) for attaining salvation by
removing evil vrittis which are as follows:
·
Yamas (The five
"abstentions") Yamas are ethical rules in Hinduism and can be thought
of as moral imperatives (the "don'ts"). The five Yamas listed by
Patanjali in Yoga Sutra are non-violence, non lying, non-covetousness,
non-sensuality, and non possessiveness.
·
Niyama (The five
"observances"): It
includes virtuous habits and observances (the "dos") such as purity, contentment, austerity, study, and
surrender to god.
·
Asana: Asana is
a posture or seat that one can hold for a period of time, staying relaxed, steady,
comfortable and motionless.
·
Pranayama
(suspending breath): It is the work of
controlling the breath and keeping the mind firm and focused. It is also
interpreted as control of the life force.
·
Pratyahara
(abstraction): It is the withdrawal of the
sense organs from external objects.
·
Dharana
(concentration): Fixing the mind on the identification of the underlying object
is called dharana.
·
Dhyana (meditation): it
is a deep and continuous mental concentration or contemplation on an object.
·
Samadhi (liberation): Samadhi is to withdraw the entire consciousness
from external objects and merge it into the soul.
iii.
Nyaya Philosophy:
Akshapada Gautam is the proponent of
Nyaya philosophy. Nyaya literally means
justice, rules, method or judgment. It deals with logic and epistemology and
performs critical examination of the objects of knowledge by means of the rules
of logical proof. This school states four sources of knowledge namely the
perception, inference, comparison and testimony. Nyaya is concerned with the means
of right knowledge. Its ultimate concern is to bring an end to human suffering,
which results from ignorance of reality. Liberation is brought about through
right knowledge.
iv.
Vaisesika philosophy: The
word "Vaisesika" is derived from Vishesa, which means
distinction or distinguishing feature, or particularity. Maharishi Kanada is
the founder of this philosophy. Vaisheshika and Nyaya philosophy are considered
complementary to each other. It is a system of pluralistic realism, which
emphasizes that reality consists in difference. It classifies all objects of
experience into seven padartha, or categories. Padartha literally means an
object which can be thought (jneya) and named (abhidheya). The seven categories
are: substance (dravya); quality (guna); action (karma); generality (sāmānya);
particularity (vishesa); inherence (samavāya); and non-being (abhāvā).
Vaisheshika philosophy is considered as an atheistic philosophy, but because it
accepts the traditions of Vedas, it cannot be called completely atheistic. According to this philosophy, padartha have
specific properties. It is because of
that specific quality that a special substance is created. For example, the quality of the seed of the
grain produces the same grain. Not other
food. Through Tattva knowledge, the soul
is liberated. This philosophy considers
direct and conjectural evidence. Mind is
the cause of happiness and sadness.
Tattva knowledge makes the mind happy and gives salvation.
v.
Mimasa Philosophy: Mimamsa also known as Karma mimamsa or Purva mimamsa is believed to have been
written to explain the subjects of human conduct mentioned in the Vedas. Its
pioneer is Rishi Jaimini. The Sanskrit word Mimamsa means reflection or
critical investigation. According to mimansa philosophy, karma is
superior. It is through karma that man
is freed from bondage. Auspicious or
proper actions lead to salvation, inauspicious actions bind a person. Observance of intellectual action or
ignorance is auspicious action. The goal of mimansa is to impart knowledge of
religion. According to this school,
ritual obligations and actions performed properly maintain the harmony of the
world and advance the personal goals of the performer. Such actions(karma) are
Nityakarma, Naimittika Karma, Kamya Karma, Nishid Karma, Pryaschitha Karma etc.
vi.
Vedanta Philosophy: It is
also known as Uttar mimansa. The term
Vedanta means the last part or the conclusion of the Vedas. The Upanisads, the
Bhagavadgita and the Brahma Sutras constitute the basis of Vedanta (known as
the three canonical sources). Upanishads are considered to be the epitome of
Vedanta which elaborate the Vedas. A sage named Badarayana (Vyasa) wrote the
essence treatises of all the Upanishads known as the Brahmasutras. The main
subject of Vedanta is Brahmajnana (divine knowledge) through which man attains the true knowledge of birth
and death and attains salvation.
II.
Atheist (Nastika)
Philosophy
Atheist school
of thought (philosophies) that do not
believe in the Vedas, God, soul and the afterlife(
transcendentalism) are as follows:
i.
Charvaka Philosophy:
Charvaka (sweet-talkers) philosophy is an ancient Indian materialist atheist
philosophy. It
is also known as Lokayat Darshan.
It accepts only direct evidence and does not accept all
supernatural claims, all religious authority, scripture and transcendental beings. This philosophy does not believe in Veda. It
is categorized as a heterodox school of Indian philosophy which is believed to
be founded by Brihaspati. According to this school, the ultimate goal in
life is pleasure and avoiding pain.
ii.
Jain Philosophy: Jain
philosophy denies the existence of God. It
is believed to be originated from
the teachings of Vardhaman Mahavira, the first Jain Tirthankara (spiritual
teacher). Its main
feature is to be kind to everyone. This
philosophy emphasizes that right belief, right speech and right conduct should
be adopted to get rid of worldly bonds and attain salvation. It has been said that in order to attain
spiritual superiority, one should have five virtues such as
Ahimsa(non-violence), Satya (truth), Astaya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (
celibacy) and Aparigraha (non-attachment to anything).
iii.
Buddhist
Philosophy: Buddha is believed to be derived from the word Bodh which
means to understand. Therefore, Buddhism
emphasizes the realization of reality.
Buddhism is an atheistic school based on Buddhist philosophy. This
philosophy tries to move forward between two extreme philosophies, Hinduism and
Charvaka. Buddhist philosophy is believed
to have originated from the teachings of Gautama Buddha. Gautama Buddha was saddened by the sight of
the elderly, sick and dying and sought enlightenment while doing penance to
free himself from suffering. According
to him, there are four noble truths: all beings in the world have suffering,
sufferings have causes, there are remedies for suffering and there are eight
paths to remove these sufferings. Buddhists believe
that by practicing these eight paths, ignorance is destroyed and complete peace
(Nirvana) is attained. Buddhism has instructed to follow the following eight
paths to remove suffering: right view, right aspiration, right speech, right
action, right livelihood, right effort, right mind fullness and Right contemplation.
1.4.
Implication of Eastern
Thought in Education
Thought
refers to the act or process of reflection, cogitation, the power of reasoning,
or the capacity of conceiving ideas or way of thinking. We can see the difference
in the thought of the people living in the east than the people of western
world. We have already studied that Eastern thought means the thought of Asia
and it includes countries such as Indian continent, China, Japan, Korea etc.
whose thought and philosophy seem to have influenced the behaviour and way of life
of individuals and society as well as the educational system.
Eastern thought seems to have played a crucial role in
determining the educative process, curriculum, objectives of education, role of
students and teachers, etc. of eastern countries. Overall, the suggestions and
implications of the Eastern thought tradition for education can be traced out
as follows:
a.
The aim of
education should be all-round development of children
b.
The objectives of
education should be to inculcate human values, discipline, cooperation,
non-violence, religious tolerance, ideals, reverence for God.
c.
Subjects of real
knowledge, spiritual and moral knowledge should be included in the curriculum
d.
Curriculum should incorporate
contents related to preservation, transmission and development of culture.
e.
The teacher has an
important role in the educational system.
It depends on the teacher what to teach the students and how to teach
them. The teacher should take this
responsibility.
f.
A good teacher has
to work very hard to transfer his ideas and teaching skills to the students and
to maintain a good relationship with them
g.
Students should be
disciplined and adopt the knowledge and skills given by the teacher.
2.
Introduction to Western
Philosophy
2.1.
Development of education
according to Western educational thought based on time (chronology)
Western thoughts are the philosophies and
ideas born in the western countries of the world, especially Europe and
America. From ancient Greece, Rome to America, Britain, France, Italy, Germany,
etc. western countries have contributed significantly to this work. The
development of Western philosophy can be divided into the following three
stages:
A. Ancient
period (600-300 BC):
Ancient period is the
cornerstone period of Western philosophy.
Greece has the greatest contribution to the philosophical development of
this period. This period is believed to have started from the sixth century BC.
The Roman civilization spread about six thousand years ago also helped in the
development of Western philosophy.
Marcus, Auraneous, etc. were the philosophers there, while the
philosopher Cato was considered to be the Socrates of the place. The major
contributors of Western philosophical development at that time were Thales
(625- 546 BC), Pythagoras (582 - 500 BC), Heraclitus (500 BC), Anaxagoras (500-
428 BC), Parmenides(500 BC), Protagoras 480-411 BC, Socrates (469 -399 BC), Plato (428-347), Aristotle (348-322 BC)
etc. This time was the history of the
spiritual past.
During this time, disciplines such as
spiritual science, mathematics, geometry, astronomy, science, law, ethics,
political science, logic, psychology, and art were born. The development of these disciplines were
really the development of philosophy itself.
During this period, ideas related to creation, knowledge, value and
logic were created and philosophy developed its field.
B. Medieval
period (300 BC – 1400AD):
European
society did not make much intellectual progress in the Middle Ages. This era was considered to be the end of Greek
philosophy and the beginning of Christian philosophy. From the end of Roman
civilization, philosophy was viewed from a religious perspective. They took
philosophy as hedonism. Scholasticism
was considered to have emerged during this period. The predominance of
religious philosophy based on Christianity remained.
The
major philosophers of this period were - Plotinus 205-270 AD), Sant Augustine (354-430
AD), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). During
this time, Catholicism began. The
philosophy of this time was focused on the primacy of the soul, faith in God,
sin and virtue.
C. Modern
period (after 1480 AD):
The
modern era of western philosophy is considered to have begun from the fifteenth
century. But the profound influence of
this philosophy appeared more directly from the seventeenth century. Philosophers started moving from
transcendentalism to real and sight world.
Objective and behavioural approaches emerged. Materialistic philosophical thoughts
developed.
Many philosophers appeared during this
period. Among the noted philosophers of this period are Erasmus (1466-1536),
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), Rene Descartes (1596-1650), Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677),
John Locke (1632-1704), George Berkeley (1685-1753). , David Hume (1711-1776), Rousseau
(1712-1778), Hegel (1770-1831), Karl Marx (1818-1883), John Dewey (1859-1952)
etc.
During this time the field of philosophy
became very broad. Every aspect of life
and the world was looked at by philosophy.
All the fields of philosophy (Metaphysics, Epistemology, Axiology and
Logic) got perfection. Material and
revolutionary philosophies such as naturalism, pragmatism, progressivism, and
Marxism were developed in counter
to multiplicity of spiritual philosophies.
The development of various philosophies led to major economic, social
and political changes in the society.
Philosophy began to be seen as the basis of every type of study. Various sub-disciplines developed within philosophy.
2.2.
Aims and Objectives of
Western Educational Thought
The aim and objectives of Western
educational thought are as follows:
a. To
develop the sense of self-respect among the youths
b. To provide quality education
with values
c. To
foster a creative learning environment
d. To
inculcate human values as well as character building in students
e. To
bring out the natural inborn qualities
f. To
develop professional skills, competencies and excellence
g. To
help reconstruct and reorganize experiences
h. To
prepare dynamic and adaptable people according to changing situations
i. To
prepare for complete living
2.3.
Implications of Western
Educational Thoughts
The western thoughts has not only
influenced the lives of the people there but also the educational sector. The
following suggestions and directions can be derived from the Western thoughts to
the purpose of education, educational process, curriculum, role of teachers and
students:
a.
Teaching and
learning should be conducted in a natural environment keeping in mind the
nature of the child. Education should emphasize on the personality development
and creativity of the learner.
b.
The psychological
aspects of the child such as need, interest, level, ability, maturity,
individual differences etc. should be given importance while teaching
c.
Planning is
essential in teaching learning as in other areas
d.
The objectives of education
should be to meet the needs of the changing society as well as the
socialization of the child. Also, it should be address the need of national
unity, international understanding and relations and brotherhood.
e.
The teaching
method should be based on the child's self-activity and learning by doing. For this, practical methods such as project,
experimentation, Montessori, kindergarten, play way, Dalton plan, problem
solving, discovery, heuristic, inductive and deductive etc. can be used.
f.
A teacher should
play the role of a guide, helper and facilitator instead of teaching
g.
The content should
be presented in a logical sequence, connecting it with daily life
h.
Curriculum should
include content that can develop entrepreneurship and management skills in
students.
i.
The latest
innovations and learning theories such as micro
teaching, programed
instruction, teaching machine,
models of teaching etc. can be used
for effective teaching and learning
j.
Democratic process
should be followed in teaching and learning.
There should be a punishment-free learning environment etc.
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